Traditional indicators of population health, such as life expectancy and infant mortality rates, show deterioration in South Africa. In South Africa, the high rate of HIV infection that occurred at the turn of the twentieth century is now reflected in ever-increasing rates of AIDS morbidity and mortality.
DEFINING STIGMA
Furthermore, in South Africa HIV-related discrimination may be directed to a greater extent against women. According to Herek, all that is required is "a few dramatic acts of stigmatization" to make the entire target group feel stigmatized.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
Furthermore, research has shown that there may be gender differences in Thomson's stigmatizing attitudes (cited in Dias, Matos, & Gongalves, 2006). If these links can be shown to exist, it will provide an indication of some of the causes underlying stigma among youth in KwaZulu-Natal.
CAUSES OF STIGMA EXPERIENCED BY PLWHA
According to Herek, this type of stigma is an example of the symbolic AIDS stigma. According to Nyblade et al., physical exclusion occurs through isolation of the person with HIV/AIDS.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
By “discrediting other individuals or groups, an individual or group affirms its own normality and legitimizes its devaluation of the other.” Research in the United States has shown that PLWHA are segregated based on whether they are perceived as innocent or blameworthy.
STRUCTURE OF DISSERTATION
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
MANIFESTATIONS OF AIDS STIGMA
A second study by Vanable et al. 2006) in the United States found that HIV-related stigma was associated with a number of negative health and social consequences. The following three studies examining the relationship between inaccurate HIV transmission beliefs and stigma took place in the United States, China, and Thailand.
STUDIES IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES OTHER THAN SOUTH AFRICA
Some of the findings were that inaccurate knowledge about the ways in which HIV is transmitted leads to a significant increase in stigmatizing attitudes, such as fear and irritation towards PLWHA. A study conducted by Nyblade et al. 2003) on AIDS stigma in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zambia disentangled some of the underlying causes of the stigma.
STUDIES AMONGST ADOLESCENTS
However, the percentage of respondents who also held a misconception about how HIV cannot be transmitted was also high. For example, only 56% answered correctly that HIV can be transmitted through anal intercourse and only 51% were correct in stating that HIV can be transmitted through oral sex.
STIGMA AND RISK PERCEPTION
Before the intervention, 17% students were unwilling to have contact with PLWHA and 22% would avoid a friend if they knew he or she was HIV positive. These factors can range from the amount of knowledge an individual possesses about the magnitude of the risk, to their personality type and whether they perceive the benefit of weighing the risk to be taken.
HIV AND ‘OTHERING’
The study found that more than two-thirds of the sample in both countries perceived this. A process of 'othering' occurred regardless of HIV prevalence or cultural differences in the respective study populations.
Essentially, people are aware of the risk and perceive that they are at risk, but fail to change their risk behavior. At the other extreme are those who are at risk and are actually HIV positive, but consider themselves at low risk.
CONCLUSION
The study found that 12.8% of women and 7.5% of men who considered themselves to be at low risk tested positive in the study. It is therefore clear that some respondents who are at risk correctly consider themselves to be at risk.
INTRODUCTION
STUDY AREA
The two areas within KwaZulu-Natal selected for data collection were the Durban Metropolitan and Mtunzini Magistrates' Districts. These two areas were chosen as they are considered to appropriately represent urban, transitional and rural areas in KwaZulu-Natal.
THE CONTEXT
SAMPLE SELECTION
Before the fieldwork started, 120 enumeration areas were selected from a sample of all the enumeration areas. The households that were selected in the enumeration areas that had one or more young people between the ages of 14 and 22 are included in the survey.
DATA COLLECTION
ETHICAL PROCEDURES
The section in this questionnaire relevant to this current research included HIV/AIDS knowledge, risk perception and stigma. A further disadvantage is that a pre-set questionnaire such as the one used in the Transition to Adulthood study does not provide any information about how or why the respondent answered in a particular way. The solution to the shortcomings of using quantitative data is the use of quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection.
This may have helped to further elucidate some of the root causes of the stigmatizing attitudes identified in this study.
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENTS
If the respondent mentioned at least one point in the group, it was assumed that they understood the principle behind the form of transmission in question. Analysis was conducted to determine whether there were significant differences in mean knowledge and stigmatizing attitude scores across categories of characteristics. Knowledge and stigmatizing attitude scores were found to be highly skewed, and parametric tests were unsuitable for achieving significance levels.
On the advice of a statistician, nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis tests were performed to test the hypothesis that mean scores were equal across categories. Spearman's Rho correlation test was used to determine whether there was a significant correlation between the stigmatizing scale and the knowledge score.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
- INTRODUCTION
- DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE
- ANALYSIS OF STIGMATIZING ATTITUDES
- ANALYSIS OF KNOWLEDGE
Twenty-nine percent of men and 26.8% of women thought their friends were at risk of contracting HIV. Twenty-four percent of men and 15% of women thought infected students should be excluded from school. Eleven percent of men and 16.1% of women would not share a toilet with an HIV-positive person.
Twenty-five percent of men and 27.5% of women would not share food with an HIV-positive person. Twenty-three percent of men and 21.6% of women would not share a bed (no sex) with an HIV-positive person.
Percentage distribution of knowledge score (0-3) based upon gender
The graph shows that women have better knowledge of HIV transmission than men. The graph shows that the colored group has the highest knowledge about the transmission of HIV.
Percentage distribution of knowledge score (0-3) based upon race
Score
ANALYSIS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STIGMATIZING AND KNOWLEDGE
More than half (58%) of the small percentage of respondents who had no knowledge (0 points) ranged from 13 to 20 on the stigmatizing scale. Twenty-eight percent of respondents who had a knowledge score of one are in the stigmatizing range of 13 to 20 on the scale. In the range from 13 to 20 on the stigmatizing scale, there are 14 percent of respondents who scored two or three in knowledge.
CONCLUSION
DISCUSSION
- INTRODUCTION
- KNOWLEDGE OF ACCURATE AND INACCURATE MODES OF HIV TRANSMISSION AND ITS EFFECTS ON STIGMATIZING ATTITUDES
- EFFECTS OF GENDER AND RACE ON STIGMATIZING ATTITUDES
- PERCEPTION OF RISK AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The respondents who scored low on knowledge about HIV transmission were significantly more likely to display stronger stigmatizing attitudes. In general, little difference was found in the profile and strength of stigmatizing attitudes between men and women. The results from this study showed that respondents who had unfavorable attitudes towards condom use showed increased stigmatizing attitudes.
Respondents with higher stigmatizing attitudes were more likely to not use a condom at last sex and to have negative attitudes toward condom use. In conclusion, a process of “othering” could take place among those who have less knowledge and stigmatizing attitudes.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION
Respondents who showed a stronger stigmatizing attitude and therefore took greater risks were more likely to become HIV positive themselves. Paradoxically, these respondents will also face the greatest stigma if they are ever diagnosed as HIV positive.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Knowledge about HIV/AIDS, the perceived risks of infection and sources of information of US-born Asian Indian adolescents', AIDS Care 12 (2) pp. Accurate and inaccurate HIV transmission beliefs, stigmatizing and HIV protection motivation in Northern Thailand', AIDS Care 16(2) pp. Social stigma, HIV/AIDS knowledge and sexual risk: A cross-cultural analysis.” Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research 10 (1) pp.1-26.
Traditional beliefs about the cause of AIDS and AIDS-related stigma in South Africa.’ AIDS Care. Transitions to Adulthood in the Context of AIDS in South Africa: Report of Wave 1. Washington DC: Horizons/Population Council.
110 How many times in your life have you moved from one place to another, including the move to this place. Have you ever failed or failed a grade in elementary or high school, or were you ever held back a year. out of, or grades that you were held back. Age not in school for an entire school year (record age on 1 February in school-free year).
Have you completed this program, are you currently enrolled, or have you not completed the program. What is the main reason why you or your family chose the school you currently attend/last attended.
IS AT SAME SEX SCHOOL
301 Have you/have you had a "Life Skills" or life orientation/sex education program in your school? About how many hours during the past four weeks did you attend or listen to these special presentations? When you found out you were HIV+, did you tell your partner if you had one?
530 Did you or your partner use a condom the last time you had sex with him/her? discharge in the last 12 months. your private parts in the last 12 months. The last time you had a genital ulcer/sore or abnormal genital discharge, did you do any of the following:
Alcohol and Drugs Use
806 If you could choose at what age you would have your first child, when would it be. 807 If you could choose the number of children you would have in your lifetime, how many would it be? In the next few weeks, if you found out you were pregnant (Interviewer: for boys read: “If you found out your partner was pregnant”), would this be a big problem, a small problem or no problem for you? .
Even if you have not actually given birth – if you have had a miscarriage, or an abortion, or the baby died before or shortly after birth – that still counts as pregnancy to me. 826 How many babies have you delivered in total, including babies who may have been born alive but later died?
Paternity
