Each value is the mean of three variables ± standard deviation...62 Table 3.3: Total flavonoid content of water extracts and their formulations and methanol extracts and their formulations. Each value is the mean of three variables ± standard deviation……….64 Table 3.4: Qualitative phytochemical analysis results for methanol extracts and their formulations………66 Table 3.5: Qualitative phytochemical analysis results for aqueous extracts and their formulations ………67 Table 3.6: Minimum bactericidal concentration of plant extracts and their formulations against test bacteria……….73.
INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND
- STUDY RATIONALE
- HYPOTHESIS
- OBJECTIVES
- Primary objective
- Secondary objectives
- REFERENCES
This can also help reduce the dosage an individual has to take compared to individual plants (Oseni et al., 2012). Medicinal plants used by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe in Rajshahi district, Bangladesh for the treatment of various ailments.
LITERATURE REVIEW
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS EXTRACTS
- Plant phytochemicals
- Interaction between phytochemicals
Saponins are secondary metabolites of glycosidic nature that are widely distributed in higher plants (Podalok et al., 2010). Another study by Parker et al., (2010) found synergistic interactions between mixtures of rutin, p-coumaric acid, abscisic acid, ascorbic acid and a sugar mixture using oxygen radical absorbance (ORAC) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR).
ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF PLANT EXTRACTS
PLANT EXTRACTS AS IMPORTANT ANTIMICROBIALS
INFECTIOUS DISEASE AND DRUG RESISTANT IN MICROBES
- Antimicrobial resistant among bacterial organisms
- Antimicrobial resistance among fungal organisms
In many parts of the world, there are countries where this treatment is now ineffective in more than half of patients. Common intestinal bacteria that can cause life-threatening infections - until the last treatment option (antibiotics carbapenems) have spread to all regions of the world.
THE USE OF ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING IN
In the Venda region of Limpopo province, Samie et al. (2009a) tested in vitro the activity of extracts of 18 medicinal plants against some gastrointestinal pathogens. In a similar study, Samie et al. (2009b) evaluated extracts from eight plant species against a standard strain (HM-1: IMSS) of Entamoeba histolytica using the slurry dilution method, with only P.
DRUG RESISTANCE AMONG VIRUSES
- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- Life cycle of HIV-1
- The HIV-1 therapy and management
- Natural products derived anti-HIV-1 treatment
The immature viruses are released from the infected cell and the protease enzyme finishes cutting the HIV protein chains into individual proteins that combine to create a new working environment (Mailler et al., 2016). Research has shown that plants have phytochemicals that have anti-HIV activity (Leteane et al., 2012).
TOXICITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
- Toxicological screening of medicinal plants
- The importance of In-vitro cell proliferation assay in toxicological studies
Studies have shown that in-vitro assays of cell proliferation have led to the discovery of many drugs that can be used to manage diseases such as cancer, HIV, hypertension and diabetes. One of the methods used for toxicology screening is the CellTiter 96 Non-Radioactive Cell Proliferation Assay.
THE SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANTS USED IN THIS STUDY
- The selection of plants used in the study
- Description of Pterocarpus angolensis (mutondo)
- The description of Peltophorum africanum (Musese)
- The description of Ximenia caffra (Mutshili)
- The description of Terminalia sericea (Mususu)
A study by Manosroi et al., (2006) showed that Psidium guajava leaf oil had antiproliferative activity against epidermal carcinoma (KB) and murine leukemia (P388) cell lines. The roots and bark are used to treat both human and livestock diseases (Bizimenyera et al., 2007). Zhen et al., (2015) found that cell-based assays showed that the leaf extract inhibits the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory genes (IL-6, iNO and TNF-) by using RT-qPCR, demonstrating its anti-inflammatory effects implies. .
Roots of Terminalia sericea are used by African tribes to treat diarrhea and indigestion as a decoction; it is also used to treat headaches and pains and the leaves are used against stomach disorders and as an expectorant (Steenkamp et al., 2004). The bark is used to treat diabetes and topically for abrasions.
Medicinal plants used by lay people to treat sexually transmitted infections in Northern Maputaland, Kwa-Zulu Natal Province, South Africa. Antiproliferative activity of essential oil extracted from Thai medicinal plants on KB and P388 cell lines. The potential role of medicinal plants in the fight against resistant microbial pathogens in Limpopo Province, South Africa.
Comparative in vitro cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities of two indigenous Venda medicinal plants.
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES AND PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING
INTRODUCTION
People in still-developing countries experience an extreme burden of infectious diseases that result in death. As previously reported by Samie et al., (2005), of the approximately 57 million deaths per year worldwide, approximately 15 million are estimated to be caused by infectious diseases. Traditional medicine has been used to treat infectious diseases since ancient times (Yim et al., 2013).
Therefore, the investigation of medicinal plants and herds as alternative therapy for infectious diseases may be a solution to the overwhelming burden of infectious diseases.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
- Collection of plant material
- Plant extraction
- Phytochemical evaluation
- Preliminary phytochemical analysis
- Antibacterial activity test
- Antifungal activity test
About 2ml of distilled water was added to 5mg of the plant extract and shaken vigorously for ten seconds and allowed to stand. In this test, 5mg of the plant extract was treated with chloroform and filtered, a few drops concentrated. The smallest concentration of the plant extract that could kill the bacteria was considered the minimum bacterial concentration (Samie et al., 2010).
To determine the mutual influence of four medicinal plants in formulated mixtures against four test bacteria.
RESULTS
- Total phenolic content (TPC) of the plant extracts
- Total flavonoid content (TFC)
- Preliminary phytochemical analysis
- Antibacterial activity
- Minimum bactericidal concentration
- Fractional inhibition index (FICI)
- Antifungal activity
The content of flavonoids in the tested plant extracts and formulations is expressed in quercetin equivalent with the standard curve equation y =0.0244x + 0.046, r2 = 0.9994. All methanol extracts and their combinations showed better antimicrobial activity with the lowest MIC value of 5 mg/ml. All methanol extracts and their formulations and all aqueous extracts and their combinations showed the best antimicrobial activity against the test organism with MIC values between (2.5 mg/ml to 0.078 mg/ml) and (5 mg/ml to 0.078 mg/ml) or
Most of the extracts and combinations tested showed low activity against the fungal organisms tested, except T.
DISCUSSION
Moreover, even though water extracts have been reported not to work, (Luseba et al., 2007) even water mixture 3 showed the best results equal to the positive control. This is similar to the findings of Samie et al., (2010) who found that the acetone extract of T. As previously reported, it was observed that the extraction solvent played a major role in the total phenolic content of the plants ( Malualem et al., 2011; Ogunmoyole et al., 2013).
A study by Kurapati et al., (2016) discovered that the oleanolic acid from the methanolic extracts of Xanthoceras sorbifolia showed inhibition of HIV-1.
CONCLUSION
Antibacterial, Anti-inflammatory and Mutagenic effects of some medicinal plants used in South Africa for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Pharmacological properties and protein binding capacity of phenolic extracts of some Venda medicinal plants against cough and fever. Activity profiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Venda communities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterial species.
Antifungal activity of selected Venda medicinal plants against candida albicans, Candida krusei, Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from South African AIDS patients.
ABSTRACT
RESULTS: All plant extracts and formulations showed good antioxidant activity against DPPH, methanol formulation showed the best antioxidant activity with IC µg/ml. For inhibition against HIV, all formulations at 200 µg/ml showed a higher percent inhibition of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, with methanol mixture 3 being the best overall with 97.5% activity, while aqueous mixture 5 was the least active with 63.03% inhibition activity. Furthermore, methanol mixture 3 showed the best anti-HIV activity at 100 µg/ml with 71% inhibition.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The results of the study indicated that most of the commonly used traditional medicinal plants in the Venda region, when mixed together, have value for use in traditional medicinal practice as they have shown good antioxidant activities, good cell proliferation activities and good anti- HIV activities.
INTRODUCTION
The use of medicinal plants to treat various diseases has gained a lot of interest worldwide. Unlike pharmaceuticals, medicinal plants are believed to be easily accessible, affordable and harmless (Nasri and Shirzad, 2013). Although medicinal plants are considered harmless, some medicinal plants should be taken with caution as some cause adverse reactions, especially when taken in unfavorable concentrations, or together with pharmaceuticals (Lakmichi et al., 2011).
Poly-herbal combinations of medicinal plants are also believed to have better therapeutic effects than individual plants.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
- Free radical scavenging activity (DPPH)
- Anti - HIV activity
- Toxicity assay
- Assay for Cytotoxicity
- Statistical analysis
A volume of 10 µl of the prepared mixtures was added to 90 µl of lysis buffer to obtain a final concentration of 0.6 mg/ml, which was used in the assay. After the incubation period, the negative control was treated with 40 µl of lysis buffer and 20 µl of the reaction mixture. A series of dilutions of the plant extracts or formulation at reduced concentrations was performed to cover all wells and control wells.
After 48 hours of incubation, 15 µl of the dye solution was added to all wells and incubated again for 4 hours.
RESULTS
- DPPH scavenging activity
- Anti-HIV activity
- Cell viability assay
Percent cell viability of aqueous extracts, methanol extracts and their formulations at concentration at lower concentrations (12.5 µg/ml to 100 µg/ml). All tested extracts and formulations were in percentage of cell viability above the positive and negative control (11±1.51). Percent cell viability for aqueous extracts, methanolic extracts and their formulations at higher concentrations (25 mg/ml to 3.125 mg/ml).
Cell viability for water extracts, methanol extracts and their formulation at higher concentrations (50mg/ml and 100mg/ml).
DISCUSSION
These findings are similar to a previous report by Adewusi and Steenkamp (2011) who reported that the antioxidant activity of methanol. T. Naidoo et al. (2013) reported that the combination of different plant herbs resulted in synergism, antagonism, additivity and non-interactivity of the extracts. Aqueous and methanol extracts of roots and stem bark have been shown to inhibit RNA-DNA polymerase-dependent reverse transcriptase activity of HIV-1 and ribonuclease-H reverse transcriptase activity (Ebada et al., 2008).
In previous studies, Okeleye et al., (2013) reported that the ethyl acetate stem bark extracts of P.
CONCLUSION
Antibacterial activities of selected medicinal plants used to treat sexually transmitted infections in Bloubergarea, Limpopo Province. Munodawafa T (2007) Screening of some traditional medicinal plants of Zimbabwe for biological and antimicrobial activity, Mphil Thesis, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe. Sigidi MT, Anokwuru CP, Zininga T, Tshisikhawe MP, Shonhai A, Ramaite IDI, Traore AN, Potgieter N (2016). Comparative in vitro cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobiological activities of two indigenous Venda medicinal plants.
Antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity studies of medicinal plants used in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases.
OVERALL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
OVERALL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The ability of the plant extracts and their formulation to scavenge free radical DPPH was also evaluated. The plant formulations were screened for their ability to inhibit HIV-1 reverse transcriptase enzyme and finally the toxicity of all the plant extracts and formulation against HLEC was determined using MTT. No alkaloids were detected in all the plant extracts and formulations, which is good because alkaloids are known to be toxic.
All the plant extracts and formulations were also tested for their antioxidant activity, both the methanolic and aqueous samples being potent DPPH free radical scavengers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This study has shown that medicinal plants commonly used in the Venda region for the management of diarrhoea, HIV and other HIV/AIDS-related opportunistic infections can improve human health and that the formulation of plant extracts results in a best therapeutic of the individual plant. , care must be taken when preparing the extract and formulating the plant. Furthermore, the dose administered plays a vital role in the activity of the herb and medicinal formulations. This study will also serve as a platform where herbal formulations from the plant extracts used can be further explored.
The chemistry behind the interaction of the phytochemicals in the plants used in the study needs to be studied to identify chemical reactions that result in synergistic effects of the plant extracts.
