I don't think I would ever be able to repay you for the time, effort and love you have shown me, but in my father's words, "ek sal daai klip uit jou pad uit rol" to the best of my ability. Briefly, in a cue-reward contingency perspective, a subject is trained that a specific sensory cue is associated with a tangible rewarding outcome, and thus the presentation of the cue begins to stimulate approach behavior.
Dissertation layout
Problem statement
This drive for social interaction has been used as a behavioral reinforcer in associative learning paradigms (Al-Imari and Gerlai 2008; Daggett, Brown, and Brennan 2019; van Staden et al. 2020). There is an increased interest in targeting constructs to multiple diseases as novel treatment pathways (Servaas et al. 2021).
Study questions
Study aims and objectives
Study layout
Again at each subsequent session, the location of the cue was exchanged between the opposing compartments of the maze. During this phase, both the cue and the reward were presented again, albeit in opposite compartments of the maze.
Research hypothesis
Ethical approval
Bibliography
Instrumental learning in a mouse model of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Impaired habit formation in Sapap3 mutants. Clinical efficacy and cognitive and neuropsychological effects of levetiracetam in epilepsy: a multicenter open-label study.
Cognitive flexibility and rigidity in psychiatry
This uncertainty transcends research methodology, for which many and very different approaches have been used over time (Lilienfeld and Strother 2020; Cherry et al. 2021). Although these represent commonly used methods for quantifying behavioral flexibility, their accuracy remains somewhat questionable (Cherry et al. 2021), as patient bias may influence the final results generated.
The neurobiology of cognitive rigidity
We will then close by briefly referring to some of the other neurotransmitters that may play a role in treatment outcomes with potentially novel cognitive enhancers, e.g. Therefore, GABAergic dysfunction may contribute to disrupted circuit functioning (Smith-Hicks 2013; Whittington and Traub 2003).
The treatment of conditions characterised by impaired CR
Yet, for all these conditions, treatment resistance always remains a clinical challenge (Williams et al. 2013; Kolevzon, Mathewson, and Hollander 2006; Fineberg et al. 2015; Bedford, Hunsche, and Kerns 2020), in which case adjunctive strategies have been pursued. This makes sense, given a proposed role for increased glutamatergic activation of the CSTC pathways in these conditions (Chakrabarty et al. 2005; Rolls 2012; Duman, Sanacora, and Krystal 2019; Rubenstein and Merzenich 2003). 37 (Kadriu et al. 2019; Zanos et al. 2018), which also increases GABAergic signaling and decreases glutamate release.
The main mechanism of action of these agents is related to restoring the GABA-mediated excitatory-inhibitory imbalance in the CSTC6 circuit (Prevot and Sibille 2021; Ren et al. 2016; Rodriguez et al. 2013; Peyrovian et al. 2020).
A new way forward – beyond the known horizon of treatment
Specifically, impaired synaptotagmin functionality is associated with a reduced ability of calcium to trigger neurotransmitter release (Nowack et al. 2010). The fact that LEV2 does not interact directly with specific neurotransmitters but with SV2A, expressed in all types of neurons (Janz et al. 1999; Klitgaard and Verdru 2007), may be key to its potential as a cognitive enhancer (Helmstaedter and Witt 2008; This potential the cognitive-enhancing effect depends on another rather unique mechanistic effect of LEV, which appears to affect only abnormally active neurons, leaving typical brain function unaffected (Cortes-Altamirano et al. 2016).
This view is further supported by the fact that SV2A plays an important homeostatic role with respect to typical neurotransmission (Nowack et al. 2010).
The zebrafish as a model organism
These include the posterior tuberculum and/or the caudal hypothalamus found in the diencephalon (Rink and Wullimann Kaslin and Panula 2001; Naderi et al. 2016). However, there are certain differences in the subunit configuration of zebrafish compared to mammalian GABA1 receptors (Sadamitsu et al. 2021; McCarroll et al. 2019). Thus, zebrafish have been used in studies involving color-dependent learning (Ahmad and Richardson 2013; van Staden et al. 2020).
46 processing, regarding the association of social conspecifics with a color signal in a T-maze (van Staden et al. 2020).
Perspectives on the current work – towards a novel pharmaco-behavioural model of CR in
47 of a “greater than expected” reward, triggers a phasic dopaminergic response that drives behavioral engagement (Wise and Kiyatkin 2011; Stuber et al. 2008). Adequate reversal learning ability is essential, as it serves as an indicator of overall CF7, which itself is essential for optimal learning (Izquierdo et al. 2017). In relation to the current work, we will build on previous research from our laboratory that used social reward as a positive reinforcer of cue-driven behavior induced by APO2 (van Staden et al. 2020).
The aforementioned study, which inspired the current study design (van Staden et al. 2020), used a traditional T-maze that paired social rewards and cues in opposite arms of the maze in a similar phase-based cue/reward schedule as used. here.
Summary of chapter 2
Furthermore, since selected enclosures are only accessible through enclosures, fish cannot see the other selected area once they have made a decision to enter a specific compartment (refer to Chapter 3 for details). We believe that this approach is conceptually superior, as it required the experimental subject to make a determined movement to investigate the other arm of the choice.
Co-occurrence, assessment and treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder. A systematic review of the use of risperidone, paliperidone and aripiprazole as adjunctive agents for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Low-dose risperidone adjunct to fluvoxamine treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
Acute and long-term treatment and relapse prevention of obsessive-compulsive disorder with paroxetine. Similar enhancement of reward and punishment learning by serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depression is associated with distinct neural correlates.
Introduction
Finally, efferent neurons connecting the thalamus to the cortex close the circuit (Di Filippo et al. 2009; Stocco, Lebiere, and Anderson 2010), resulting in the termination of the action. Chronic administration of APO leads to a bio-behavioral state resembling hyperdopaminergic signaling, activating both pathways of the CSTC circuit (Westenberg, Fineberg, and Denys 2007; Kool et al. 2010). In addition, they possess relatively comparable physiological systems and a high genetic homology with mammals (Stewart et al. 2014; D'Amico, Estivill and Terriente 2015).
In addition, zebrafish are used in studies involving contingent learning with reward (van Staden et al. 2020), an experimental paradigm that will also be used here.
Materials and methods
Conspecific fish were housed in groups, separated by sex for ease of experimentation (maximum n = 8 per tank) for the duration of the study. Depending on the phase of the investigation and the individual social preference of the test subject, the introduction tanks held either one or three (phases 1 and 3) or none (phase 2) conspecific fish. After the 6-min session was completed, the fish were gently netted out of the maze and placed back into their home tanks.
In this case, the cue was presented in alternate compartments of the maze during each subsequent trial.
Results
To analyze mean per-trial performance (Figures 3-3A and 3-4A), two-way repeated measures analyzes of variance (2-way RM ANOVA) were applied. All graphical representations of data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM)3, while all statistics appearing in text are presented as mean ± SD4. Data are presented as averages of the percentage of time subjects spent near the relevant target areas per trial.
Data are presented as averages of the percentage of time subjects spent near the relevant target areas per trial (A).
Discussion
Here, a marked increase in reward-driven responsiveness of all fish is observed in the first trial of this phase, against the background of the fact that social conspecifics had now been reintroduced to the maze. As expected, the analysis of mean performance per phase (Figure 3-3B), revealed a significant difference between the reward-directed behavior of the CTRL and APO + LEV groups alone. During Phase 1, fish exposed to APO1 (Figure 3-3A, red line) continued to interact with conspecifics at the first entry site (on the left) for the remainder of the phase.
Therefore, it is possible that the fed state of the animals changed their behavior in some way.
Conclusion
An intricate interplay between two components of action-outcome processing is said to be representative of all human and animal behavior, namely goal-directed and habitual behavior (Goschke, 2003; Dreisbach and Goschke, 2004; Hommel, 2015; Ehmer et al.). , 2020). It is believed that this interplay between goal-directed and habitual behavioral selection is continuously influenced by a neurocognitive continuum, with cognitive flexibility (CF)1 on the one hand, and cognitive rigidity (CR)2 on the other (Wood et al. al. , 2014; Hommel, 2015). If usual behavioral involvement becomes excessive, CR begins to overwhelm CF (Everitt and Robbins, 2005; Gillan et al., 2016).
To this end, it may be promising to target a general neuropsychological construct (such as CR) underlying these conditions (Servaas et al., 2021).
Shortcomings and recommendations for future studies
106 colors much more than others, which may introduce a rewarding component of color cues in themselves, a possibility that may strengthen cue-reward learning processes. Finally, based on theories of how reward prediction errors are generated, we speculate that it would be necessary to design future mazes in such a way that the presentation of the cue precedes the subsequent presentation of a reward, so that that powerful reward prediction errors can be formed. Indeed, some research shows that simultaneous pairing of a cue and reward is insufficient to consolidate robust incidental learning (Keiflin and Janak, 2015).
Bibliography
Fish were fed during part of the 150 min intertrial period between two trials. The position of tokens/rewards was changed for the second trial of the day. A period of 150 minutes elapsed before the start of the second trial of the day for each individual.
The procedure described in the previous two points was repeated for the second trial of the day, after which the fish were once again gently returned to their home tanks to await drug exposure according to the procedure already described (approximately 1:30 p.m.).
