Polarity: The theology of anti-Judaism in Ephrem the Syrian’s hymns on Easter
PJ Botha University of Pretoria
A bstract
P olarity: T h e theology o f an ti-Ju d aism in E p h re m th e Syrian’s hymns on E aster
In th is p a p e r, th e p o la rity Jew s C h ris tia n s in th e hymns on E aster of the fourth-century Syrian theologian E p h re m is in v estig ated . T h is p o la rity is found to be p o le m ic a l a g a in s t th e Jew s. B ut sin ce p o la r ity is a constant featu re in the work o f E phrem which serves to c o m m u n ic a te h is th e o lo g ic a l f r a m e o f m in d , th e q u e stio n is asked w h eth er an ti-Ju d aism does not also serve to convey theological ideas. An a tte m p t is m ade to d e m o n s tr a t e t h a t a n t i - J u d a i s m in d e e d h a d a theological function for E phrem ; A nti-Judaism seem s to have b een an aspect of C hristian self-definition. It was a lso a way o f ex p ressin g the c o n cep ts o f th e o lo g ic a l balance and reciprocity.
I. INTRODUCTION
O n e o f the m ost notew orthy theologians o f the patristic era is also one o f the most neglected. E p h rem the Syrian (c 306-373) was born in Nisibis and becam e deacon in a b o u t 338. A fter th e P ersian o ccupation o f N isibis in 363, he m ade his way to E dessa which then lay just inside the Byzantine frontier. H e declined the h onour of a high clerical position, but served the com m unity o f believers in various ways. H e acte d as spokesm an for his bishop, conducted the choir and taught theology a t the fam ous ‘School o f the Persians’ in E dessa (E l-K houry 1976: 16-20). Shortly before
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36 ISSN 0259 'M22 ~ H T S 4 6 / i A 2 (1990)
his d e a th in 373, he took it upon him self to organise re lie f for the p o o r durin g a fam ine (B rock 1985: 18). But E p h rem ’s one outstanding contribution to the Syrian church was a treasu re of liturgical hymns which seem ed to flow from his pen in an incessant stream . Such was his capacity for writing poetry th at he was appreciatively referred to as ‘the p ro p h et o f th e Syrians’, ‘the sun o f the Syrians’, ‘the pillar o f the church’ and ‘the lyre o f the Holy Spirit’ (B ardenhew er 1962: 342).
E p h re m ’s lite ra ry rh e to ric b e a rs re s e m b la n c e to th a t o f th e B ible in many re s p e c ts . T h e sk ilfu l e x p re s sio n o f c o n tr a s t a n d p a ra d o x th ro u g h th e u se o f a n tith e tic w o rd -p a irs an d p h ra s e s is a com m o n fe a tu re in th e w ork o f th e two o u ts ta n d in g Syrian th eo lo g ian s o f the fo u rth century, A p h ra h a t and E p h rem (cf M a rtik a in e n 1981: 11-12). As a re s u lt o f E p h re m ’s p re fe re n c e fo r p o etry as a literary m edium , in contrast to the sole use o f prose in A p h rah at’s extant work, the p o la r s tru c tu r e o f E p h re m ’s hymns seem s all th e m ore co n sp icu o u s. O n e such polarity which is com m on to both Syrians, but which seem s to abound especially in the hymns o f E p h rem , is th at o f the antith etic w ord-pair ‘peo p le :: p eo p les’. This o p p o sitio n is sim ila r to the c o n tra st b etw een ‘p e o p le ’ an d ‘g e n tile s’ in the O ld T e s ta m e n t, b u t th e (ch u rch from th e ) ‘p e o p le s ’ is en d o w ed by E p h re m w ith a positive co n n o tatio n , while the w ord ‘p eo p le’ is used as a denigratory term for the Jews.
E p h re m ’s hymns on E aster, namely the collections on th e unleavened b read (De A z y m is ) , o n th e c ru c ifix io n {De C ru c ifix io n e ) a n d on th e r e s u r r e c t io n (D e R esu rrectio n e) p ro v id e a m p le o p p o rtu n ity fo r th e e x p lo ita tio n o f th e p o la rity betw een Jew s (‘the p e o p le ’) and C hristians ( ‘the p eo p les’). R ead in g these hymns, o n e b e c o m e s a w are o f th e skill o f E p h re m to p u t p o la rity to effectiv e use in polem ics. T h e co ntraposition o f com parable but opposite elem en ts brings about a sem antic and sem iotic tension which serves to enhance the pow er of his argum ents (cf B otha 1988: 581-595).
A n o th e r a sp e c t o f this p o larity w hich d eserv es o u r a tte n tio n , how ever, is its theological dim ension. P olarity seem s to be th e outstan d in g featu re o f E p h re m ’s hym ns a n d c h a ra c te ris e s his a p p ro a c h to th eo lo g y . In c o n tr a s t to th e G re e k th eo lo g ical tra d itio n w hich sought to set opoi, b o u n d a rie s, by way o f theological definitions, E p h rem was of the opinion that to try to ‘define’ G od was a sacrilegious en d e a v o u r (B rock 1985: 10). H is a ltern ativ e ap p ro ach was by way o f p o etry and through the use of paradox and .symbolism which fitted into the fram ew ork o f fK w try
as his fa v o u rite m edium . In this way, his theology so to sp eak did n o t seek the centre o f the circle (th e aspect under investigation), but located opposite points of the circle by way o f paradox and thereby described the circum ference o f the circle in a dynamic rath er than a static way (Brock 1985: 11).
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Anti-JudaLsm in Ephrcm the Syrian’s hymhns on Easter
T h e q u e s tio n th a t c o n c e rn s us h e re is th e fu n c tio n o f th e p o la rity Jew s ::
C hristians. E p h re m ’s hymns is fiercely an ti-Ju d aistic and th e o p position betw een Jew s an d C h ristian s in his hymns on E a ste r was certainly m e a n t to be polem ical.
But how does this polarity relate to E p h re m ’s theology? I propose to show th at the p o larity Jew s :: C h ristian s in E p h re m ’s hymns should be re la te d to his theology.
A n ti-Ju d aism itself had a theological function in form ing a foil fo r C hristian self
d e fin itio n . M o re o v e r, th e p o la rity b e tw e e n J u d a ism a n d C h ris tia n ity h ad th e function o f placing em phasis on th e p o in t o f balance betw een the two systems: the C hrist-event.
2. T H E PO L A R IT Y P E O P L E :: PE O PL E S 2.1 T he opposing zeal o f Jew s and Christians
In E p h re m ’s hym ns on E a s te r {De A zym is II 13-14), th e Jew ish p eo p le an d the C hristian church are counterbalanced via a set of antitheses:
H ope cam e for the people; the people cut off its hope and threw it to the peoples, and they w ere w ithout hope.
The peoples hastily put on the hope th at they had taken off.
T h e h o p e w h ich th e p ro p h e ts lo n g e d to see, w ho w o u ld n o t be astonished th at the m ad ones, because they saw it (him ),
hastened to despise him as to why he had come in their days.
H o p e is m etaphorically presen ted as clothing which is ‘cut o ff, ‘taken o ff, ‘throw n’
aw ay a n d ‘p u t o n ’. B ut it is a lso a m e ta p h o r fo r th e m essiah , sin ce ‘h o p e ’ is personified in the next strophe:
F o r this reaso n he cam e in th e ir days: th a t he w ould have m ercy if they w ould accept him, and if
they w ould reject him , th a t they should know how m ad they w ere to despise their light.
T he polarity form ed by the Jews and the C hristians are thus defined by two sets of antitheses:
38 H TS 4 6 /1 A 2 (1990)
T h e people T he peoples
1. H astened to despise Christ 1. H astened to put on C hrist (c fR m 13: 14).
2. ‘T ook o f f hope 2. ‘Put o n ’ hope
T he w ord for ‘to hasten’ is used to stress the sim ilar but opposite zeal in relation to Christ:
P eople negative zeal-> .C h rist< -p o sitiv e zeal f Peoples 2.2 R ejection an d election
In reaction to the negative and positive zeal shown respectively by the Jews and the C h ristia n s, w hich le a d s to th e Jew s rejectin g th e ir m essiah a n d th e C h ristia n s accepting him, G od reacts by rejecting the Jews and electing the G entiles:
Because they put him betw een the robbers in th eir anger, they hinted on them selves. F o r the one on the left is th eir symbol. In him they w ere rejected, for he chose the peoples which hastened to take refuge in his crucifixion, like the (other) robber ... (De Cnicifixione V 7).
This suggests the following polarity:
P e o p le d rejected < - Christ -^chosen Peoples
R ejection o f the Jew s by G od had, however, im portant consequences. It m eant, for instance, th at they would be punished for their ingratitude (cf D eA zym is II 16):
It is difficult for an unjust person to realise that he is unjust.
Since he does not perceive his evilness while he does not experience it, he will learn from his (own) unjustness the taste of his evilness.
O n e a s p e c t o f th e p u n is h m e n t o f th e Jew s w as th e ir b e in g d is p e rs e d . T h e ir d is p e r s io n , h o w e v e r, s ta n d s in r e l a tio n to th e g a th e r in g o f th e c h u rc h {De C rucifuione IV 13):
T he people was dispersed so that the peoples could be gathered, the sanctuary was pulled down; our sanctuary is erected.
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Anti-Judaism in Ephrcm ihc Syrian’s hymhas on Easter
T h is d isp ersio n o f the Jew s serves to prove th a t the im m in en t ju d g e m e n t (cf D e ' Azym is X III 27, D e Crucifixione V 8) has already begun for the Jews. T he people is w ithout hope (De A zym is II 13) and the peoples despise them {De Crucifixione V 5):
Since they d espised the circum cised w hile he w as crucified in th eir country, the nation of the peoples despises the rejected one.
In c o n tra st to them , th e p eoples are baptised, w ashed, cleansed and renew ed {De C ru cifixio n e IV 16). T h e fo llo w in g p o la rity can be d e d u c e d fro m th e abo v e- m entioned antitheses:
People-!^ punished -< ^C hrist->redeem ed Peoples 2 3 T he polarity particularism :: universalism
As a result o f all nations being included in the church, the people and the peoples are also contrasted in term s of particularism and universality. T he sacrificial .system o f th e Jew s w as closely lin k ed to the san ctu ary in J e ru sa le m . In c o n tra st, holy com m union can be practiced everywhere {De Azym is XXI 22, 24-25):
In Jerusalem alone it was perm itted to perform (the rites of) feast and sacrifice....
In ste a d o f th e sacrifice o f all kinds o f an im als th a t w as m ad e in Jerusalem alone
the living body is now being sacrificed in our days, the living sacrifice, over the w hole earth.
Thus:
P e o p le ^ cen tralised ->• cult ^ u n iv e rs a l <f-Peoples 2.4 T he polarity tem porality :: truth
T he relationship betw een the religion o f the Jews and th at of the C hristians is o f a symbolic n ature according to E phrem . This applies especially to the m aterial being tre a te d in hymns on E aster:
O n th is fe a s t, th e b lo o d o f th e tr u e lam b w as m ixed w ith in the disciples.
O n th is fe a st, th e te m p o ra l lam b gave te m p o ra l sa lv a tio n to th a t people {De A zym is V 16,17).
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This results in the following polarity:
P e o p le - ' te m p o ra l^ s a lv a tio n -^ tru e -«-Peoples 2.5 T h e polarity s y m b o lf u lf ilm e n t
T he exegetical tradition which E phrem follows, also serves to strengthen th e notion of polarity betw een the Jews and Christians;
Praise to him who has saved the peoples with his blood in stead o f the sym bol that had saved only that people {De A zym is XXI refrain).
On this feast, the temporary lam b gave that people temporary' salvation.
On this feast, deception fled through the true lam b that taught truth.
That lam b o f symbols was substituted since fu lfd m en t cam e and fulfilled the symbols.
The truth o f the true lam b does not term inate - what could be greater than it so that it (in turn) would be substituted {De Azym is V 17-20)?
T he ‘sym bol’ thus becom es a type of an antitype in the C hristian dispensation:
People — sy m b o l—>-Pa.ssover.<-fulfilment •<-Peoples
T he people o f th e old dispensation was m ade o bsolete to g eth er with th eir symbols (De Azym is XIX refrain):
Praise to Christ, through whose body the unleavened bread o f the people was abolLihed together with the people.
3. n i E T U F iO L O G IC A L D IM EN SIO N O F l>OI-ARITY
T h e a b o v e in v e s tig a tio n has e s ta b lis h e d th a t th e p e o p le an d th e p e o p le s are co n traste d through the use o f an tith eses and a n tith etic p hrases on a literary level.
T h e tw o Syriac w ords for ‘p e o p le ’ and ‘p e o p le s’ a re sim ilar in re s p e c t o f sound (singular and plural of the word DV). This similarity serves to draw atten tio n to the d if fe re n t c o n n o ta tio n s a n d the p o la r q u a lity o f p ro n o u n c e m e n ts in w hich th e singular and plural of the word ‘p eo p le’ are used. W hile they are m orphologically and paradigm atically related, they are syntagm atic opposites.
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Anti-Judaism in Ephrcm the Syrian’s hymhns on Easier
F ro m th e s e e x a m p le s it h as a ls o b e c o m e c le a r th a t E p h r e m m a k e s no distinction b etw een th e Israelites o f the O ld T estam en t period, th e Jew s o f Jesu s’
tim e, o r his own contem poraries. In one hymn, nam ely De Azym is XVIII, the word for ‘peo p le’ has the following denotations:
1. T he Israelites at the institution of the feast o f Passover (refrain);
2. T he Jew s th at pierced Christ with a spear (sic) (strophe 4);
3. T he people as referred to in D euteronom y 32; 15 (strophe 5);
4. T he people as referred to in Isaiah 1: 3 (strophe 7); and 5. T he Jewish contem poraries of E phrem (strophe 9 and 12).
By m ean s o f th e h is to ric a l link b etw e e n th e Jew ish fe a st o f P asso v er an d th e C h ris tia n E a s te r, E p h re m e sta b lish e s th e n o tio n o f a h isto ry o f c o n fro n ta tio n . A ccording to this surm ise, the Israelites and the Jews are one and the sam e people sin ce they a re n o t only g en ealo g ically re la te d , b u t also p o ssessed by th e sam e ideological disposition of antagonism against G od. A ntagonism betw een G od and Israel (cf De Resurrectione III 2 and 3) results in antagonism betw een the Jews and C h ris t (c f D e R esurrectione III 4 an d 5; De A zy m is II 10). T h is d e v e lo p s in to antagonism betw een Jew s and C hristians (cf De A zym is X V lIl 6,7,8-10, 11, 16; De Azym is XIX 5,22 and 24).
T h e O ld T e s ta m e n t m e ta p h o r o f a m a rria g e b e tw e e n G o d a n d Is ra e l is developed into an allegorical history:
(i) Is ra e l is th e b rid e o f th e king (G o d ) th a t fo rn ic a te s (th e w orship o f the golden calf) in the m onth Nisan, just after the wedding. T he king then rejects h er as b rid e , b u t engages h er d a u g h te r (th e Jew s) to his son (C h rist) {De Resurrectione III 2 and 3).
(ii) T h e Jew s (as bride o f th e m essiah) rejects th e b rid eg ro o m . T h ey kill the prince in the m onth o f Nisan. C onsequently, G od rejects them . This results in th e w edding o f the ‘p eoples’ with C hrist (De Resurrectione III 4 and 5, De Azym is II 10).
(iii) T h e p o la rity is c o n tin u e d th ro u g h th e a n ta g o n is m o f th e Jew s ag a in st C hristians. T he guilt of the death of C hrist clings to them (M t 27: 25 is used as p ro o f o f this). F urtherm ore, they w ant to kill the faith of the follow ers of C hrist (De A zym is X VIII 6,7,8-10,11,16; XIX 5,22 and 24). T his polarisation also culm inates in Ni.san.
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T he polarity can be illustrated by the following diagram : Israel -4--- G od
Jews ---> Christ Jew s 4---^ C hristians
As a result o f th e solidarity betw een Israel and the Jew s, th e re is also a solidarity b etw een th e elem en ts o f the opposite pole: G od, C hrist and the church are united through the continual antagonism o f the Jews.
The polarity betw een Jews and Christians should thus not be viewed in isolation from th e polarity betw een G od and Israel (as expressed by O ld T estam en t prophets) a n d th e p o la rity b e tw e e n ‘th e Jew s’ a n d C h ris t (as ex p re sse d by th e G o sp els).
A ntagonism o f Jews against C hristians shows them only to be true to their n atu re of apostasy; on the o th er hand, anim osity o f C hristians against Jews is p ropagated as a religious duty, since this establishes solidarity with Christ and therefo re with G od. It can th e r e f o r e be said th a t a n ti-J u d a is m in E p h r e m ’s day h ad a th e o lo g ic a l dim ension.
A n o th e r a sp e c t o f th e p o la rity b etw e e n Jew s a n d C h ris tia n s re la te s to the theological concept of reciprocity. T he rejection o f C hrist by th e Jew s is balanced by the rejection o f the Jews by G od. T he contem pt o f the Jewish contem poraries of Je s u s fo r th e ir m essiah is b a la n c e d w ith c o n te m p t fo r th e Jew s by all n atio n s.
R e c ip ro c a l a c tio n by G o d an d by C h ris tia n s se e m s to e sta b lis h a d o c trin e o f retrib u tio n . T his in turn projects the concept o f o rd e r in G o d ’s universe and in his actions with man.
Religious history is also presented as a polar structure. Every aspect o f Israelite relig io n has a su p ersed in g p a ra lle l in C h ristianity an d the tw o d isp en satio n s are finely balanced in the elem ents of the feast of Passover. It is as a result o f this view o f C h ristian ity as a m irro r im age o f Ju d aism , in w hich th e rev ersal o f a ttitu d e is p a rtic u la rly stressed , th a t re fle c tio n on the fe a st o f P assover, an d especially the crucifixion of Christ, becom es essentially anti-Judaistic.
4. AN-n-JUDAISM AND THEOIXXJY
T o my m ind, C h ristian theology was c h a ra c te rise d since its in cep tio n by a p o lar stru ctu re. W ith ‘inception’, the Jewish phase of C hristianity is o f course not taken in to a c c o u n t, fo r it is w ith th e p e rio d o f g row th o f th e g e n tile c h u rch th a t the
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Anti-Judaism in Ephrcm ihc Syrian’s hymhns on Eiastcr
o p p o sitio n b etw een Maw’ an d ‘g ra c e ’ d ev elo p e d . T his o p p o sitio n is nev erth eless already presen t in the New T estam en t w here it may be detected in the form of polar w ord-pairs and antitheses. T he C hristian church understood itself to be G o d ’s true Israel (G1 6: 16) as o p posed to the em pirical p eo p le w hich m ade up Israel in the fle sh (I C o r 10: 18). T h is p o sed a h e rm e n e u tic a l p ro b le m , since no h isto rical d e v elo p m en t lead s from Israel to Ju d aism and from th e re directly to C hristianity (G u n n ew eg 1978: 20). T he h erm en eu tical key th a t C h ristian ity found in treatin g H ebrew scripture as prediction and prophecy and prom ise (cf G unnew eg 1978: 21), strengthened the polar structure o f its theological reflection.
T h e church felt th a t it could establish its own legitim acy only by claim ing for itself the h eritag e of ancient Israel and denying it to the Jews (G aston 1986b: 164).
T h e a n ti- J u d a is m o f th e N ew T e s ta m e n t its e lf w as o f a th e o lo g ic a l n a tu r e . M atthean anti-Judaism , for instance, seem s to have served prim arily as a tool in the struggle for identity o f th e M atthean church (Pryzybylski 1986: 199). Likewise, the anti-Judaism o f Luke-A cts is aim ed at overcom ing the (theological) problem o f the legitimacy of the C hristian com m unity after the fall of Jeru.salem and the shift o f the church to an alm ost com pletely G entile C hristian m ovem ent (G asto n 1986a: 139).
C hristian theology was devised as a theology of opposition: reality in opposition to typology; tru th in opposition to symbols; fulfilm ent in o p p o sitio n to prediction;
the ‘le tte r’ which kills in opposition to the spirit which brings to life (II C or 3: 14).
P a tristic theo lo g y c a rrie d on in th e sam e vein. T he rejectio n and accep tan ce of C hrist; the rejection o f the Jews and acceptance of gentiles by G od; the judgem ent on the Jews and the salvation of the church; the centralised cult and the universality o f the church; the cult of symbols and the religion of truth; and O ld T estam en t types and C h ristian fulfilm ent - all form p a rt o f a literary trad itio n th a t rem ain ed fairly constant during the period from the second to the sixth century of the C hristian era and to w hich w riters b efo re and after C onstantine and from the Syriac, G reek and Latin b ranches o f the church attest (cf R u eth er 1978: 118). A ccording to R u e th e r (1978: 118), th e two m ost im portant aspects o f this tradition w ere (a) the rejection of the Jews and the election o f the gentiles and (b) the view th at the Jewish law, cult and in terp re tatio n o f scripture were inferior and w ere fulfilled. T he polarisation of Judaism and Christianity it implied, is evident.
T he polarity betw een Jews and C hristians in the hymns o f E phrem should thus be seen in its relation to a literary and theological tradition. A lthough his polem ics w ere re la te d to th e socio-political co n tex t a t th e tim e o f th e ir origin, it m ust be rem em bered that early Christianity .saw it.self as the theological opposite of Judaism , an d this gave rise to a p o lar stru ctu re which was an ti-Ju d aistic but not necessarily anti-Jew ish. As is the case w ith M elito (cf W ilson 1986: 95), c e rta in anti-Jew ish
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them es in E p h rem should be seen as the reverse side o f an a ttem p t to articu late a definition o f Christianity.
5. CONCLUSION
In relatio n to Judaism , C hristianity may be viewed as a new theological paradigm . C riticism of its predecessor is often the most conspicuous feature of a new dogm atic paradigm , and the polarity betw een Judaism and C hristianity can th erefo re be seen as an e x iste n tia l necessity in early C h ristian thinking. T h is p o la r context which form ed the cradle for Christian theology was continued through the developm ent of theology itself, thereby creating a herm eneutical circle. A nti-Judaism in the hymns o f th e c h u rc h f a th e r E p h re m w as, in te r a lia, a way o f claim in g legitim acy for C hristianity. A ccording to G asto n (1986b; 164), diverse ele m e n ts o f C hristianity c o u ld be ra llie d u n d e r th e com m on cause o f p ro te c tio n ag ain st the d an g e rs of Judaism . R u e th e r’s conclusion (R u e th e r 1974: 81) th at anti-Judaism in the church fathers was an intrinsic necessity of C hristian self-affirm ation which p resented an an sw er to specific th eo lo g ical p ro b lem s the early ch u rch had to cope w ith, thus seem s substantiated from a study of E phrem ’s hymns on E aster.
Finally, it should be rem em b ered that texts have a life o f th e ir own once they had b een called into existence. A nti-Judaistic texts from the patristic era had - quite a p a rt from th e ex isten tial necessity w hich m ight have p ro m p te d th e ir o rigin - a profound influence on g enerations o f C hristians. F rom theological opposition and criticism o f a system in o rd e r to estab lish se lf-u n d e rsta n d in g , a n ti-Ju d a ism and retribution developed into a dogm a o f the church. T he present identification of the existential need for anti-Judaistic polem ics should not be taken as a condonation of the a c tio n s th a t ev en tu a lly re s u lte d from it. O n the c o n tra ry , it sh o u ld h elp to uncover a religious and social prejudice that becam e an tiq u ated already at the tim e o f its inception.
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