Likewise, the rite of female initiation is mentioned, with and without the practice of female circumcision. Continuity of the practice is also emphasized due to the emphasis on fertility and honoring the ancestors.
Introduction
The Stark Reality
I could not understand why Muslim jurists condoned a practice that harmed the health and well-being of girls and women. Later, the focus of this study changed to examine the practice in both African traditional religion and Islam.
Towards Unfolding the Problem
In the Islamic context, Muslim scholars differ on the issue of the practice of female circumcision. These three objectives support the title of the thesis, i.e. "The Practice of Female Circumcision in African Traditional Religion and Islam".
Key Questions
Some of them like Abdur Razzak (1998:50) consider the practice of female circumcision as a requirement in Islam. Third, the study seeks to determine why some Islamic views accept the practice of female circumcision.
Aims and Objectives
Relevance of the Study
Exposing and discussing the practice of female circumcision is essential, as it can foster better relationships and understanding between different cultures. In the context of traditional African religion, several arguments have been presented to prevent female circumcision.
Theoretical Framework
Therefore, the diviners could also initiate a similar consultation on abolishing the practice of female circumcision. Senegal appears to be leading the way in abolishing the practice of female circumcision.
The Design of the Study
Literature Review
Paul Findley's Silent No More provides useful information about the practice of female circumcision in various countries in Africa. He emphasizes that the practice is unacceptable in Islam because of the harm it causes to girls and women.
Definition of Key Terms
- Definition of African Traditional Religion
- Female Circumcision
- Cultural/Religious Practice
- Abandonment/Eradication
Rahman and Toubia (2000:3) mention that internationally the term "female circumcision" was used for many years to describe the practice. In light of the aforementioned concerns, the term "FGM" will be used throughout this thesis.
Structure of the Study
Therefore, this study will also examine how certain beliefs in traditional African religion promote the practice of female circumcision. Furthermore, the way in which the practice of female circumcision was maintained for the purpose of social identity is also examined.
Introduction
Female Circumcision and Safeguarding of Chastity
In ancient Rome, mechanical devices in the form of a ring or rings were inserted through the labia majora to prevent intercourse and enforce chastity (hence the term infibulation, derived from "fibula") (Dareer, 1982:76). In some parts of Africa and Asia, a ring was attached to the labia, which could only be removed with a sharp object such as a knife.
Female Circumcision as a Form of “Treatment”
The historical prevalence of the practice indicates that one of the reasons for the practice of female circumcision was to prevent promiscuity and promote chastity. The control of female sexuality is also very closely linked to the practice of female circumcision.
Present-Day Practice of Female Circumcision - Demographic Distribution
A 1990 study in Senegal found that one million Senegalese women and girls, i.e. 20% of the female population, have been circumcised (Hassan, 2000:1). Dareer's (1982:1) study of the five provinces in Northern Sudan shows that female circumcision is practiced by 99% of the people surveyed, with different types of circumcision varying from region to region and from tribe to tribe.
Conclusion
Introduction
Male and Female Circumcision
Rahman and Toubia (2000:40) exemplify the difference between the two types of circumcision by stating that male circumcision involves the removal of the foreskin from the tip of the penis without causing any damage, while the degree of cutting in female circumcision is anatomically far . more comprehensive. Clitoridectomy in connection with female circumcision, where all or part of the clitoris is removed, would be equivalent to removing most of the penis in male circumcision.
Types of Female Circumcison
- Clitoridectomy
- Excision
- Infibulation or Pharonic Circumcision
- The Intermediate Type of Circumcision
- De-circumcision (De-infibulation) and Re-circumcision (Re-infibulation)
It was invented following legislation in 1946 which banned the practice of pharaonic type of circumcision. The different grades were due to the girls following the midwife's instructions.
Differentiating the Various Types of Female Circumcision
The aim is to make the vaginal opening as tight as that of the original circumcision (Abdalla, 1982:7). As Harris and Bond state that in Guinea the type of cutting used by the Northern Kissi differs greatly from the type used by the Southern Kissi (Sanderson, 1981:21).
Examples of How Female Circumcision is Performed
The type of procedure performed in the above description is of one of the intermediate types, where only excision takes place and no stitching. Traditional practitioners, who also deliver babies, perform a large proportion of the procedures in countries such as Sudan, Egypt, Somalia and Ivory Coast.
Who Carries Out Female Circumcision?
In Sudan, the trained midwives usually perform circumcision in the urban areas while the untrained midwives perform circumcision in the rural areas. Both Dareer and Abdalla found that in the rural areas the majority of circumcisions were performed without anesthesia and antibiotics, while in the urban areas the trained midwives used anesthesia and antibiotics.
The Age at Which Girls Are Circumcised
According to Caldwell et al, a study conducted in Ondo, Oyo and Lagos states in South West Nigeria in 1994/1995 indicated that almost half of the procedures were performed by doctors, nurses and dispensers. However, the use of anesthetics was not perceived in a favorable light by the mothers of some of the girls as they felt that too much tissue could be removed from the genital area if there was no struggle or protest from the girls while circumcising is not (Abdalla, 1982:21).
Health Complications Resulting From Female Circumcision
Immediate Complications
Septicemia (blood poisoning) resulting from the procedure performed in unsanitary conditions, the use of unsterilized equipment and the application of herbs and ash to the wound. Fractures of the clavicle, femur or humurus, resulting from strong pressure exerted on the struggling girl.
Intermediate Complications
Keloid scars resulting from slow and incomplete healing of the wound and infection after the procedure.
Late Complications
In the South African context, it is mostly during childbirth that the gynecologists encounter such complications with faronically circumcised women. In the past, she delivered babies from circumcised women from various countries in Africa.
The “Medicalization” Debate on Female Circumcision
She also found that women who underwent less severe types of procedures did not experience obstructed labor or any other complications during the birth of their babies. She started her campaign twenty years later, when through her operation she saved a girl who had complications.
Conclusion
She advised them to undergo simulation and would then take many pictures to suggest that the operation had taken place. The next chapter addresses the way in which sexuality is perceived within both traditional African religion and Islam and an attempt is made to determine whether female circumcision does affect sexual response in women.
Introduction
The Notion of Sexuality
These include the physical body, feelings and attitude, the way people dress, behave, their values and beliefs, sexual relations and social aspects of life. The implications of sexuality in our culture make discussing this topic anything but comfortable.
Sexuality in the Context Of African Traditional Religion
However, it must be admitted that open discussions about sexuality are generally perceived as taboo within African societies. It is the most obvious and pragmatic way to transmit and maintain the life force; it is thanks to sexuality that humanity continues to perpetuate itself and that the ancestors are assured of memory and honor.
Sexuality in the Context of Islam
But if it happens legally in a marriage relationship, it is considered an act of worship and charity (Khan, 2003:7-8). Moreover, marital relations and child donation are mentioned in the same verse in the Qur'an.
Sexuality in the Context of Western Culture
Chastity and Fidelity in African Traditional Religion
According to the indigenous values of Africa, giving birth to an illegitimate child brings great shame and dishonor to the whole family.
Chastity and Fidelity in Islam
Moreover, he states that the overall objectives of the initiation ceremonies are: (1) to train these young people to control their emotions and (2) to display responsible maturity and maturity, which is the main purpose of initiation ceremonies, for both boys and girls. For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devoted men and women, for true (truthful) men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who are much involved in God's praise, for them God has prepared forgiveness and a great reward .(Al. -Aḥzab 33:35).
The Practice of Female Circumcision in the Context of the Sexual Revolution . 65
Subsequently, the practice of female circumcision was directed as the right of women to enjoy sexual intercourse. However, Caldwell and others believe that "the charge that such control was the central purpose of female circumcision gained more and more weight and will be a powerful weapon in eliminating the practice."
Perception of the Clitoris by Ancient Egyptians and by Adherents of African
The Changing Views on the Perception of the Clitoris, Clitoral and Vaginal
Quoting the Hite report, Fuambai states that the external clitoris contains only a small amount of the total nerve endings of the entire female genitalia. Fuambai points out that "this suggests that excision does not damage most of the clitoral nerve endings because they are below the vaginal surface."
Female Circumcision and Ablation of Sexual Desire
It is difficult to obtain accurate information about the sexual experiences of women, as most women are reluctant to talk about the subject until their third or fourth visit to the hospital or clinic (McLean and Graham maintain that very little research on the sexuality of circumcised women was done. , a subject surrounded by taboos and personal inhibitions. This would indicate that excision does not damage all the nerve endings because they lie below the vaginal surface.
The Notion That Female Circumcision Promotes Chastity and Fidelity
Many other researchers in different areas in Africa have also found that practicing communities associate the occurrence of promiscuity with this practice. The aim of the study was to access the health implications of the practice and to find out the attitudes of practicing communities.
The Notion That Female Circumcision Does Not Ablate Sexual Desire
They would, for this reason, be ideal for evaluating the effect of excision and sexual pleasure. While some claimed to have lost all pleasure, some felt strongly that sex was more enjoyable after being circumcised.
Between “Western” and “African” And Between “Inside” and “Outside”
In his article, Another Bridge to Cross: Between Outside and Inside, Peters describes the practice of FGM in the context of the hyperbolic debate and states that the obvious questions that have arisen are why FGM critics have focused on reduction or elimination of female sexual pleasure as the main reason for their opposition to the practice. She points out that Tamir argues that the oppositional position to the practice of female circumcision implies the superiority of the treatment of women in non-circumcising societies, and denies the presence of domestic violence, sexual abuse and other injustices against women in these community.
The View of Western Feminists
Women are portrayed as passive victims and men as strict, hidden perpetrators of the practice. Moreover, Walker's association of the practice of female circumcision with Islam and sexuality is vividly illustrated in an article that appeared in the Mail and Guardian (January 2007) entitled Alice Walker on lesbians and the connection between the niqab and high heels.
Responses to Western Feminists
Subsequently, Obiora's article resulted in a multitude of articles produced by many writers in various fields, in response to Obiora's defense of the practice. The narrowing of the practice has ignored the wider and wider context of female circumcision, namely the social, religious and cultural aspects of the practice.
Conclusion
De Boeck (in Ranger) believes that the "recent Africanist academic discourse has perhaps focused too narrowly on the postcolonial situation and that one must look "beyond the fractures inflicted by the postcolonial world".
Introduction
Understanding Cultural Hermeneutics
At the micro level, the theory of cultural hermeneutics suggests that female initiation rites in African traditional religion should continue to be practiced as they are believed to be beneficial to girls and women. Education as part of female initiation rites is also considered beneficial for girls and women and should be continued.
Inculturation (The Promotion of African Culture and Religion)
Kanyoro then states that one of the reasons why the practice of female circumcision continues in contemporary times may be as a result of cultural practices being promoted in the past. As Kanyoro (2002:15) says, "under the guise of culture, harmful practices and traditions are perpetuated". One of these harmful cultural practices that continues is the practice of female circumcision.
Cultural Hermeneutics
The Application of the Theory of Cultural Hermeneutics to Female
The practice of female circumcision, after being reflected upon and judged to be harmful to women's health, must be abandoned. However, they point out that it is only the practice of female circumcision that is under scrutiny.
Liberative Theologies
The foregoing is specifically relevant to the effort to abolish female circumcision and also relevant to this research. In the successful abandonment strategy outlined in this thesis, both Christian and Muslim clerics visited women in their homes, on bicycles, to convince them to stop female circumcision.
The Role of Older Women in Perpetuating the Practice of Female Circumcision
Conclusion
However in contemporary times African female theologians are increasingly debating the merits of female circumcision. One of the results of this debate has been the proposal of the theory of cultural hermeneutics to understand the practice of female circumcision.
Introduction
The Religious Orientation of the Inhabitants of Africa
In the pre-colonial era, social change was slow due to the strength and power of African traditional religion. He emphasized that through these practices African Traditional Religion will maintain its strength and vitality.
Female Circumcision in Light of the Worldview of African Traditional Religion
The Cosmos as a Unified Whole
It is unfortunate that some jurists issue Islamic rulings in support of the practice of female circumcision. A historical description of the practice of the existence of the practice of female circumcision in the present era was given.
The Spiritual Realm
Morals and Ethics in African Traditional Religion
The Female Initiation Rite
The Diviner
Conclusion
Introduction
An overview of the Science of Criticism of the Hadith is given before discussing the views of Muslim scholars on the Aḥādīth, who appear to advocate female circumcision. It is also argued why such a practice should not be tolerated in light of the broad teachings of Islam.
Female Circumcision: A Religious or Cultural Practice?
This chapter attempts to explore whether female circumcision actually has a place in Islam.
Primary Sources of Islamic Law
The Qur‟ ā n
The Qur'an is the holy scripture of Muslims and is considered the verbatim word of God revealed to the Prophet Muḥammad over a period of approximately 23 years. It is considered to be the primary source of Sharī'ah (Islamic law) and therefore Muslims are required to uphold all its injunctions.
The Ḥadīth
In other words then, the principle governing the authenticity of the isnād is that it must be traced back to the original reporter and finally back to Prophet Muḥammad through a chain of transmitters. The Aḥādīth must not contradict any of the teachings of the Qur'an or the accepted basic principles of Islam.
Aḥādīth on Female Circumcision
- Ḥadīth of Umm `Atiyyah al-Anṣāriyyah
- The Ḥadīth which implies that Female Circumcision is an Honourable Act
- The Ḥadīth which Mentions the Coming into Contact of the Two Circumcised
- The Ḥadīth which Describes Circumcision as Part of Fitrah (Natural
- The Ḥadīth Pertaining to the Enjoining of Female Circumcision on the Women
Similarly, "two yellowish things" is a name for two materials: silk and gold, although the silk is of different colors. Abd Allāh Ibn `Umar reported that the women of Al-Anṣār (i.e. the Assistants of the Prophet in al-Madīnah) were commanded to perform female circumcision.
Muslims and the Practice of Female Circumcision
Reasons for the Perpetuation of the Practice of Female Circumcision
The Belief that Female Circumcision is Sunnah
Dareer, while conducting her research in Sudan, found that the practice of female circumcision continued in light of the fact that the practice was considered a Sunnah, and therefore her respondents testified that they cared deeply about the practice bind. Most of the respondents had this to say: "This is the Sunnah of the Prophet " or "We follow our religious teaching, we are Muslims".
Rulings of the four Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence
Some Shafi'i scholars express the opinion that Sunnah is obligatory for men and only Sunnah for women (al-Majmū'). In the Hanbali School of Law, circumcision is obligatory for men and simply an honorable thing for women.
Endorsement of the Practice of Female Circumcision by Certain Muslim
Additionally, the term Sunnah associated with the practice of female circumcision creates a misunderstanding within the fold of Islam. Elyas points out that there are many Muslims who are not aware of the Islamic ruling and practice of female circumcision.
Female Circumcision and Health Hazard
An article in Africa Perspectives (2006:12) describing the health problems of pharaonic (infibulation) in Djibouti states that many female circumcision surgeries are poorly performed. Fatima Hatchi, one of only two gynecologists in Djibouti, treats women suffering complications from infibulation every day.
Female Circumcision in Light of Islamic Jurisprudence
Nadvi (1989:42) summarizes the argument by stating that one of the basic legal principles of Islam is expressed in the hadith of the Prophet when he said: "Do not harm yourself or others." It is folly and folly for a father to say, “I do not interfere in such a matter, for it is a matter for women to decide,” thereby ignoring the saying of the Prophet that “Each of you is a guardian, and each is responsible for the charges his." In Al-Bukhari and Muslim's version of this hadith, both parents are included as bearers of such responsibility.
Conclusion
The Qur'an makes no mention of female circumcision, directly or indirectly, and there is no relevant and permissible analogy to support female circumcision in Islam. In the next chapter, the researcher attempts to investigate how the cultural practice of female circumcision in the context of African Traditional Religion is synthesized within the Islamic religion.
Introduction
Female Circumcision as a Source of Social Identity
Easton and others agree with the above sentiment and state that the practice has been incorrectly identified with Islam and that female genital mutilation is not sanctioned by the Qur'an. The fact that there is no textual basis for Female "Circumcision" does not undermine the centrality of the practice to religious identity among the Mandinga.
The Preservation of the Practice of Female Circumcision with the Adoption of
The Mandingo case thus illuminates a number of important issues in the study of female "circumcision". First, it highlights the fact that religious identity is constructed in locally specific ways that often differ from global doctrines and texts.
Religious and Cultural Contact in Africa
The Interaction and fusion of Islam and African Traditional Religion
Islam‟s Cultural Flexibility and the Historical Practice
Islam's cultural flexibility has made it possible for Muslims to retain the practice of female circumcision. One illustration is female circumcision.” It is this cultural flexibility, Islam's accommodating feature and the flexibility of the religious teachers with African customs that facilitated the preservation of the practice.
The Interaction of Indigenous Culture, Customary Law and Islam
The Mālikī Legal School in Africa and the Practice of Female Circumcision . 153
This chapter has shown why some Muslim communities in Africa believe that the practice of female circumcision is a requirement of Islam. This chapter also sheds light on aspects of the international discourse emerging in contemporary times on the religious (Islamic) aspect of the practice of female circumcision.
Introduction
African Initiatives
- Church Involvement
- Legislations against the Practice
- International Accords
- Drawbacks in the Enforcement of the Law
- Tostan Abandonment Programme in Senegal
He returned to Tostan's representatives and offered his help and support in abandoning the practice of female circumcision. After this event, many other villages have decided to abandon the practice of female circumcision.
Conclusion
It has been mentioned that the practice of female circumcision originated in ancient Egypt. Because the practice of female circumcision causes pain, distress and health complications and it does not.
