Importance of the study
Aim of the study
The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence and nutritional status of women aged between 18 and 45 years, practicing geophagy in uMzinyathi and uMgungundlovu districts, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The reason for the research is that less information on geophagy has been done or documented for KZN.
Research objectives
Hypothesis
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Abbreviations
Definitions of terms
Outline of dissertation
Referencing style
LITERATURE REVIEW
- Pica
- Etiology of Pica
- Causes of pica
- Geophagia
- The history of geophagia
- Geophagia in the world
- The prevalence of geophagia in Africa
- The prevalence of geophagia in South Africa
- The prevalence of geophagia in KwaZulu-Natal
- Reasons for practicing geophagia
- Culture
- Religion
- Psychological
- Hunger and poverty
- Nutrient Deficiencies
- Pregnancy
- Health implications of geophagia
- Nutritional implications of geophagia
- Soil consumption
- The advantages of eating soil
- The disadvantages of eating soil
- Types of clay and soil consumed
- Conclusion
The study conducted in Mexico showed that the prevalence of geophagia was 37% (n=28) in a study of seventy-six women (Lin et al, 2015). According to Ghorbani (2008), soil consumption or the practice of geophagy is a traditional cultural activity done during religious ceremonies.
METHODOLOGY
- Design of the study
- Sampling
- The inclusion criteria were as follows
- Validity and Reliability
- Data collection
- Pilot study
- Questionnaires
- Materials
- Questionnaires
- Instruments
- Data analysis
- Procedure
- Ethical consideration
The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was used to determine the food security status of the participants (Appendix E, p.). The purpose of the pilot was to determine the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire.
RESULTS
Socio-demographic information
A significant number of respondents from the geophagy group were unemployed and some of them were farmers, while those who did not eat soil worked as professionals (Table 4.1). n=5) who reported working as farmers. Respondents were asked about their highest level of education. n=10) had a secondary education and only 12.5% (n=4) indicated that they had a tertiary education. A significant number of those in the geophagy group never went to school, while most of the non-soil eaters completed the twelfth grade and only a few completed the eleventh grade.
Anthropometric measurements
- Body Mass Index (BMI)
- Body Mass Index (BMI) and Nutrition knowledge
- Waist Hip Ratio (WHR)
Food security and geophagia
- Food security knowledge
- Food insecurity
A total of 29 respondents from the geophagy group compared to the 17 respondents from the control group experienced the challenge of not having different types of food that they prefer because they lack money. Seven respondents from the control group indicated that it is very rare that they experience that problem. A total of 9.4% of the geophagy group compared to 20% of the control group sometimes experienced the problem of not having different types of food that they prefer to eat because they lack money.
There was a significant correlation between the control group and the problem of not having different kinds of food p = 0.003. In the past four weeks, were you unable to eat the kinds of food you preferred because of a. A significant number from the control group experienced the problem of not eating different kinds of food they preferred because they lacked money compared to the geophagy group.
The practice of geophagia
- Frequency of eating soil
- Frequency of soil craving
- Number of years in the soil habit
- Prevalence of geophagia
- Types of non-food substances and traditional names of substances consumed
- Processing methods
Most respondents reported that the practice of geophagy was common in the area, while 43.8% of respondents reported that the practice was not common. All geophagy groups were asked whether they ate soil from termite mounds and which part of the mound they preferred. A total of 78.1% (n=25) of respondents indicated that they did not use termite soil.
Most of the respondents 78.1% (n=25) indicated that they used the digging method, followed by 12.5% (n=4) who used the scraping method and 9.4% (n=3) used punches to accumulation of geophagic substances. Respondents were asked about the texture of the soil they consumed 21.9% (n=7) indicated that the soil they consumed felt gritty, 28.1% (n=9) indicated it felt dusty while 25% (n=8) said yes despite how the ground felt and another 25% (n=8) were not sure how the ground felt. A total of 6.3% (n=2) respondents were tilling the soil while the majority of respondents 59.4% (n=19) did not till the soil before consumption, and 34.4% (n=11) indicated that they sometimes tilled the soil but not always.
Reasons for eating soil
Respondents were asked about the processing methods they used to process the geophagic soil, the majority of 50% (n=16) do not process the soil. n=1) were hitting the ground before consumption. Respondents were also asked if any heat treatment had been applied to the soil prior to consumption. 25% (n=8) of the respondents said that heat treatment was applied to the soil, while 75% (n=24) said that there was no heat treatment applied to the geophagic soil before consumption. The respondents were asked the type of thermal treatment 21.9% (n=7) of the respondents baked the soil before consumption, followed by 3.1% (n=1) that burn it and 75%. n=24) did not apply any thermal treatment to their geophagic soil.
When respondents were asked about their reasons for eating the substances they ate, a total of 65.6% (n=21) were unsure why they ate dirt, while 12.5% (n-4) believed they extract additional nutrients from the soil. , followed by 9.4% (n=3) who said they longed for dirt, while 6.3% (n=2) believed that dirt makes them light-skinned and another 6.3% (n=2) believed that soil cleanses their body systems.
Other non-food substances consumed
Those consuming nonfood substances other than soil were asked how often they consumed these substances, 12.5% (n=4) reported eating them daily, and 3.1% (n=1) reported , that they ate them monthly.
Knowledge and perceptions of geophagia
Health implications of geophagia
When the respondents were asked about the components present in the soil, 96.9% reported that they do not know the components present in the soil, while 3.1% indicated that they know the components present in the soil they consume know, know The issue of infections was also asked and only 6.3% of respondents indicated that they were often sick compared to 93.8% who said that they were not often sick. When asked about the frequency of illness, most of the respondents 93.8% indicated that they no longer get sick, while 3.1% indicated that they get sick more than once a month and another 3 ,1% reported getting sick twice a year.
A total of 93.8% indicated that they had not been diagnosed with any health problem, while 6.3% indicated that they had been diagnosed with one. The geophagic group reported consuming a mean score of 2.83 white or black bread and/or rolls/buns, while the control group reported consuming a mean score of 2.02. The geophagy group showed a mean score of 0.49 and 0.92 for the control group on foods such as legumes.
Summary of the main findings
The findings showed that for a significant number of the geophagy group their source of income was grants and unpaid employment and for the control group their source of income was paid employment. The preferred color was kakhi and the findings showed that the reason for the preferred color was based on the taste of the soil. The findings showed that most respondents ate soil because they felt like it, while others were not sure why they consumed soil.
Looking at food safety status, the findings indicated that there was a significant relationship between the control group and a problem of not having different types of food (p. = 0.003). A significant number of control group participants experienced the problem of not eating the different foods they preferred because they had no money compared to the geophagy group. The findings indicated that the geophagy group consumed more starch compared to the control group.
DISCUSSION
- Socio – Demographics information
- Anthropometric nutritional status
- Waist Hip Ratio
- Correlation between BMI, WHR and Food insecurity
- Nutrition knowledge of the two groups (Geophagia and control group)
- Food insecurity
- The prevalence of geophagia
- Food frequency intake scores for geophagia and the control group
The results of this study were in contrast to the results of the study conducted in Ghana, where geophagy was found to be present in both males and females. The results of the current study indicated that there was a significant association between the control group and the problem of having to eat fewer meals. These results contrasted with the results of the study conducted in Uganda, which showed that the preferred soil color was greyish (Abrahams, 1997).
Some findings from this study were consistent with the research conducted in Limpopo and Free State, where most people preferred to consume red soil (Songca et al., 2010). In contrast to the findings of the study conducted in Tanzania, where heat treatments were used to reduce microbial infections, pan heating, sun drying and brushing were used (Young, 2007). The majority of respondents (96.9%) indicated that they do not know the components of the substances they consume.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion of the study
- Socio demographic status
- Anthropometric nutritional status
- Food security
- Types of soils consumed
There were no significant differences in the BMI of the two groups (geophagia and control group). The findings of this study showed that the BMI of both groups fell into the obese category. The findings showed that the control group faced the problem of not having the variety of food they prefer because they lack money.
There was also no significant difference in nutrition knowledge between the geophagy group and control group. The findings charged that the traditional names of the substances consumed were Ibumba, followed by Umcako Ukhetha and Umuhlwa. The findings showed that the majority of geophagists preferred soil which was Khakhi in colour, followed by reddish, whitish, black soil and yellowish colour.
Study, limitations
Recommendations
- Recommendations for nutritionist and educators
- Recommendations for further research
Strategies to encourage people to take education seriously, as most of the geoscientists in this study had a low educational status. Essentials of Medical Geology: Impact of the Natural Environment on Public Health, Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elservier, pp. Physiological Effects of Geophagy (Soil Eating) with Reference to Iron Nutritional Status in Pregnant women: - A study in selected antenatal clinics in KSD Municipal Area of Eastern Cape, South Africa.
Nyanza E C, Joseph M, Spremji S, Thomas DSK, Mannion C. 2014. Geophagy practices and chemical element content of soil eaten by pregnant women in artisanal small-scale gold mining communities in Tanzania. BMC Pregnancy and childbirth 2014 vol.14, p.144. Be physically active b) Eat a variety of foods c) Sleep most of the day d) Drink plenty of water. The key to a healthy diet is: a) Eat a wide variety of foods b) Eat more of some foods than others. c) Eat certain types of food in moderate or small amounts d) All of the above.
Which of the following groups of nutrients are found in large amounts in fruits and vegetables? Which of the following should a pregnant woman eat more of? . a)Milk, cheese, Maas b)Meat, chicken, fish c)Fruits and vegetables d)All of the above.
