MIGRATION AND INEQUALITY
OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
The costs of migration vary from place to place and over time, which will affect the intensity of the selectivity of migration and thus the extent to which it can produce inequality. One revolves around the question of the selectivity of migration and its evolution over time.
INTRODUCTION
Ndzundza-Ndbele fonn part of Transvaal-Ndbele (and specifically southern Ndbele part of Transvaal Ndbele). They lived here in the Steenkampsberge (the highest point in the Transvaal, 2331 m, is in these mountains) near present-day Roossenekal, until they were defeated by the forces of the Transvaal Republic in 1883 (Van Jaarsveld 1985:22).
MIGRATION AS AN EQUALITY ENHANC[NG PROCESS
THE LEW IS·F EI·RANIS MODEL OF THE DUAL ECONOMY
The majority of the population lives in rural areas, where there is high hidden unemployment. By reducing the supply of labor in the subsistence sector, wages in that sector will rise and thus.
THE TODARO MODEL OF SURPLUS URBAN LABOUR
Due to the relative distance from the existing distribution network in the case of water. This is my attempt to identify a relatively stable stage in the beginning of the community's history.
M[GRATlON AS A FACTOR IN THE CREATION OF SPATIAL
MYRDAL'S CRITIQ UE OF THE EQUILIBRATING EFFECTS OF
Due to the leaching effect, resources are drawn from the surrounding areas and concentrated at the growth point, further enriching the latter and impoverishing the surrounding areas. The same argument applies to the savings of poorer areas, which are siphoned off to be invested in growth hotspots, thus producing a new cycle of growth there and starving the periphery of growth capital.
MIGRANT LABOUR AS A PROCESS OF EXPLOITATION
He was criticized, among other things, for his free concept of migrant labor (Burawoy 1976). Among other things, it was pointed out that his theory of the cheap price of migrant labor (he argued that workers were paid below the value of their labor power) was inconsistent with a strict Marxist understanding of the value of labor power (Morris 1977). .
MIGRATION AND THE PRODUCTION OF INEQUALITY BETWEEN
ECONOMETRIC STUDIES ON THE IMPACT OF REMITTANCES ON
The effect of remittance income is studied by constructing four Gini indices of income distribution for each village: one for total income. According to Stark et al. 1988) one's judgment about inequality depends on the weights attached to different income levels in the compilation of the Gini index.
ECONOMETRIC STUDIES ON THE IMPACT OF REMITTANCES ON
Clearly, this increases the realism of the no-migration scenario to some extent. Two more recent studies (Barham and Boucher 1998; Rodriquez 1998) attempted to improve on Adams' work on the assessment of the no-migration scenario.
CONCLUSION
This is the case in the South African context (and elsewhere in Africa), where the labor market generally favors men (Low 1984: 10). In Nkosini's case, the late 1970s emerges as the most likely date.
A SURVEY OF THE SELECTlV[TY OF M[GRA T10N [N THIRD WORLD
AGE
The selection of the age of migration is generally related to changes during the life cycle of the individual in the sense that young people are at an age where they need to find work and migration is then part of this process (Ritchey 1976:379). . Young adults are more likely to be employed, and their entry increases the number of potential income earners relative to dependents (elderly and children).
INCOME
Of the numerous studies showing the results of Lip ton as well as Connell and his associates. The conflicting results can probably be explained in part as a reflection of the previously discussed methodological problems inherent in studying the income selectivity of migration.
EDUCATION
Due to its altitude, rainfall, as in the rest of the high area of the Eastern Transvaal, is good (about 700 million per year). This is a result of the growth of networks that reduce migration costs.
EXPLANATIONS FOR THE SELECTlV[TY OF M[GRATlON
THE HOUSEHOLD STRATEGIES APPROACH TO MIGRATION
SOCIAL STRUCTURAL EXPLANATIONS FOR THE SELECTIVITY OF
These explanations focus on the social structural forces that can either immobilize some categories of people in the rural areas or alternatively force them to migrate. According to Radcliffe (1991), young single women in the Andean region of Latin America are more likely to migrate than young men because the gender division of labor does not give them an important role in agricultural activities.
CHANGES IN SELECTIVITY OVER TIME
TRENDS IN THE COSTS OF MIGRATION
Much of the work offered was low-paid and unpleasant, or dangerous (especially in the mining and agricultural sectors). The final reason is that although some of the costs associated with migration can be reduced.
MASSEY ET AL.'S STUDY OF CROSS·BORDER MIGRATION FROM
The five migration prevalence ratio categories serve as independent variables in their study (Massey et al. 1994a: 1513). The diversity of the migrant stream is significantly smaller, and according to Massey et al. l994a), is now an indication of less selectivity.
AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
As the distribution of the whole village has remained the same, however, it is very clear that the flow of migrants has in fact remained. This leads us to the conclusion that the diversity index is a very poor indicator of the selectivity of migrants and that the conclusions of Massey et al. (1994a) regarding selectivity cannot be considered to have much weight.
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
Studies of networks in migration focused mainly on their role in reducing the costs of migration. In this chapter I aim to move beyond this focus by investigating what Boyd (1989) calls the dynamics of networks.
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES SURROUNDING NETWORKS
DEFINING NETWORKS
The purpose of the network determines the form the network will take and this is captured by the term 'organizing focus' (see Gurak and Caces 1992: 162). In the case of Lomnitz the organizing focus of the network does not include migration facilitation.
DEFINING THE HOUSEHOLD
This justifies the view of the household as a site of more intense exchange within the network. Returning to the question I posed a few paragraphs ago: what function does cohabitation have in the typical definition of a household?
NETWORK STRUCTURE
The simplest migrant network consists of two people, one in the area of origin and one in the area of destination. This scenario presumably has an impact on the ease of assimilation of the migrant in the destination area.
NETWORK FUNCTIONING
NORMATIVE ASPECTS OF NETWORKS
In the former, the economic distance between members of the network is too great for the beneficiary to reciprocate in kind. Even if this kind of exchange occurs (see, for example, II), it may not initially be the type of reciprocity captured by networks.
NETWORK DYNAMICS
This is that the first migrant belonged to the Turkish refugee group in the village and not the majority Kurdish people or the indigenous Turks in that village. There are many female-headed households in areas of the former South African homeland (as well as the rest of South Africa affected by high rates of migrant labor) that developed in this way, or as a result of the death of a the spouse (Brown 1983).
CONCLUSION
For the poorest members of the population of the community of origin, income selectivity will continue to exist. It is therefore clear that the effect of the network in this case depends on a number of variables, such as the costs of migration, the network resources and the resources of the individual migrant.
INTRODUCTION
It is clear that these farms fulfilled an important role in housing the Ndzundza-Ndbele who lived north of the Middelburg district. James argues that most of the Ndzundza-Ndbele in her study area came from further afield in the Southeastern Transvaal.
THE OBSERVED CONDITIONS IN TIDRD WORLD CITIES AND THE
URBAN BIAS, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND THE ADVANTAGES OF
For the most part, the impact of these reforms on the urban poor of Third World countries proved to be devastating (Gilbert 1994, Partes 1989). The development model followed in most of the Third World in the 1970s was import substitution industrialization.
THE IMPACT OF THE TYPE OF MIGRATION ON THE ADVANTAGES OF
THE OPPOSITION BETWEEN PUSH AND PULL MIGRATION
THE DIFFERENT EFFECTS OF RURAL-RURAL AND RURAL-URBAN
In Chapter 3 I referred to Brown and Lawson's (1985) claim that rural-rural migration is a neglected phenomenon. In South Africa, rural-to-rural migration occurs to meet the labor needs of sheep farming (sheep shearers), the sugar industry and various types of fruit and vegetable farms (Sharp and SpiegeI1990:539).
THE IMPACT OF THE TIMING OF THE MIGRATION DECISION ON THE
In this case, they would be able to employ later migrants, with the result that their migration does not harm later migrants in the sense that they accept their jobs. Those who leave later are thus disadvantaged relative to the first migrants in the sense that they cannot buy land at those cheap rates.
THE IMPACT OF GENDER ON THE ADVANTAGES OF MIGRATION
MIGRATION AND THE INCOME EARNING CAPACITY OF WOMEN 122
As in the case of the ability to generate income, it appears that marital status is one of the factors that determine how much of their own income women keep. In other words, as women in rural areas improve their control over their own income, their control over their husband's income is likely to decrease.
REDISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANT EARNINGS AS A RESULT OF FAMILY
Non-migrants benefit because they are involved in brewing beer (in Southern Africa - see Spiegel) or because they own (legal and illegal) drinking establishments. This leads to the employment of local craftsmen in the form of masons, grass cutters and carpenters (Spiegel Georges the use of local unskilled labor to clear the land and collect building materials, as well as the consumption of locally produced bricks (Wiest 1984: 126).
CONCLUSION
Young men in this position do not marry and remain dependent members of their household of origin (Spiegel 1980: 124). In conclusion, I tried to determine to what extent the redistribution of a migrant's earnings to other households in the area of origin can improve the differentiation that can occur between migrants and non-migrants and between different categories of migrants.
INTRODUCTION
A NOTE ON SOURCES
Later, in late October and early November 1999, I followed up my visits to Nkosini with four in-depth interviews with migrants from Nkosini who lived in hostels in Mamelodi.
A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE NDZUNDZA NDBELE
How the Ndzundza-Ndbele moved from the eastern to the western side of the Steelpoort River is the subject of the remainder of this chapter. This area became known as the Mapochs Grounds, after Mabhogo, a former chief of the Ndzundza-Ndbele.
THE DISPERSAL OF THE NDZUNDZA-NDBELE THROUGH INDENTURE,
After their defeat, the Ndzundza-Ndbele lost all their land and became indentured servants on white farms in the area for a period of five years. According to Delius, an area of about 15,000 morgen in the Ndzundza-Ndbele core area was parceled out to the landless among the citizens who had participated in the campaign.
THE NDZUNDZA-NDBELE QUEST FOR LAND OF THEIR OWN,
Another farm that probably contained rents that paid Ndzundza-Ndbele was the Wonderhoek farm in the Middelburg district. In particular, he recommended that a large area between the Blood River in the south and the land planned by the Beaumont Commission in the north be set aside for the Ndzundza-Ndbele (Morrel 1983: 137).
THE ORIGIN AND TIMING OF THE MOVE TO NKOSINI
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUTNKOSINI
First of all, these figures make it clear that half of the Ndzundza-Ndbele of South-East Transvaal lived in the current Middelburg district in 1946. As the country industrialized in the first half of the 20th century, many jobs were created in the city.
THE ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE OF NKOSIN1
CONCLUSION
During the Anglo-Boer War, many of the Ndzundza-Ndbele took the opportunity to congregate around Madzidzi in Kafferskraal, as well as Fene in the Pretoria district. Most of Nkosini's residents were born on the surrounding white farms.
INTRODUCTION
At the very least, it can suggest ways in which the model should be extended to accommodate the complexity of empirical reality. It is clear from the above that my discussion in this chapter will be largely directed to the first part of the theory I am developing, in other words to that part which deals with changes in selectivity over time.
HOW THE NDZUNDZA-NDBELE BECAME INVOLVED IN MIGRANT
Sieborger (! 975) describes how the migrants had to deal with drought, cold weather, and hostile farmers and officials in the Republic as they made their way to and from the mines. Migration costs were therefore again very high, although, given the shorter distance to the diamond fields compared to the Eastern Cape, perhaps lower than in the latter case.
NDZUNDZA-NDBELE INVOLVEMENT IN MIGRANT LABOUR DURING
OFF- FARM EM PLOYMENT
This was possible because of the labor hire system. Tenants were only contracted to supply labor to the fanl1er for a specified period. This is because they would have had to forego the services of those family members who were still prepared to work on the farm in the process (Keegan.
PERMANENT MOVEMENT FROM THE FARMS
As the title suggests, most tenants could not easily imagine a meaningful life without access to land and cattle. For this reason, it was very important for households to maintain access to land where they could graze cattle.
THE COSTS OF MIGRATION AS AN OBSTACLE TO BOTH THE
As we saw in chapter 6, in the first half of the 20th century, the Ndzundza·Ndbele lived reasonably concentrated in the Middelburg and Bethal districts. According to Morrell, the Premier diamond mine near Bronkhorstspruit was active in recruiting black workers from the Middelburg district in the early twentieth century.
THE DECLINE OF THE LABOUR TENANCY SYSTEM AND THE
There was therefore never a stage in the life of the Nkosini community as a community when labor migration had just begun, but earlier. These three were involved in migrant labor at some point before the late 1970s.
GENDER SELECTIVITY DURING THE LABOUR TENANCY YEARS. 189
INCOME SELECTIVITY DURING THE LABOUR TENANCY YEARS . 190
GENDER SELECTIVITY DURING THE EARLY YEARS
INCOME SELECTIVITY DURING THE EARLY YEARS
PRESENT DAY INVOLVEMENT IN MIGRANT LABOUR •
SPATIAL ASPECTS OF MIGRANCY FROM NKOSINI
GENDER SELECTIVITY OF MIGRATION FROM NKOSINI
INCOME SELECTIVITY OF MIGRA nON FROM NKOSINI
CONCLUSION
MIGRATION AND THE REPRODUCTION OF INEQUALITY
MIGRATION AND INEQUALITY: DOES IT MATTER?
Educational levels of migrants in village A
Educational levels of migrants at a later date
Distribution of the Ndzundza-Ndbele population of the Southeastern Transvaal
Destinations to which Middelburg workers travelled - 1911
Destinations to which Bethal workers travelled - 1911
Migration destinations of Nkosini residents (current migrants)
Gender selectivity of migration from Nkosini (current migrants)
Direct versus indirect ties
Simple migrant network
Competing auspices of migration
Migrant network venus communal support network
Weak tie linking two networks
Variation in density of connection to destination area
Encapsulation scenario
Dense a rea of origin network
