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ISSUES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS
This chapter concludes the focus on personnel processes by looking at how employees are trained and developed over their careers. We will also touch on topics that were introduced in several of the earlier chapters. We return to methodological issues (particularly experimental design issues) when considering the evaluation of training programs. The section on assessing training needs is in some ways related to the discussion of job analysis procedures in Chapter 3, except that now we are assessing what knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) workers need to perform their jobs rather than analyzing the jobs themselves. Analyses of employee performance data (Chapter 6) can also assist in training needs analysis. Because training relates to many personnel decisions, some of the legal concerns regarding equal employment opportunity that we looked at in Chapters 5 and 6 are relevant here too. It is important to consider how employee training ties in with the other personnel and employee issues studied previously.
Y
ou have just graduated from college. You went through the arduous pro-cess of applying for jobs, being screened, interviewed, and “courted” to some extent by your employer. You are anxious to get to work—to show them what you can do and to make your mark on the company. However, before you are able to get started, the company sends you to a training center where you will learn the basics of the job, learn company policies and procedures, and learn about the culture of your new organization.Employee training is a planned effort by an organization to facilitate employees’ learning, retention, and transfer of job-related behavior. In most organizations, training is not limited to new employees, as various types of training and development programs are offered at all stages of an employee’s career.
In this chapter we will begin by examining areas of employee training. We will also examine the fundamentals of the learning process and how learning applies to employee training and development. We will then look at factors that affect the success of training programs. Next, we will look at how employee training needs are assessed and study general training methods. Finally, we will examine how training programs are evaluated.
Areas of Employee Training
Training, like learning, is a lifelong process. Organizations need to provide for the wide variety of training needs of workers to stay competitive. We will briefly examine some of these specific focuses of employee training and development programs.
employee training planned organizational efforts to help employ-ees learn job-related knowledge, skills, and other characteristics
New employee orientation and training
Orientation programs are typically designed to introduce employees to the organization and its goals, philosophy, policies, and procedures. They can also acquaint workers with both the physical structure and the personnel structure of the organization, such as the chain of supervisory command and the vari-ous relevant departments and divisions. During orientation new employees also learn about compensation, benefits, and safety rules and procedures. In short, initial training should provide enough information so that new employees can quickly become productive members of the organization’s workforce. In fact, there is some evidence that when it comes to employee orientation and early training, more is better (Saks, 1996). An additional function of an orientation program is to help newcomers deal with the stresses of adjusting to a new work environment (Wanous, 1993; Waung, 1995).
BEFORE YOU START Return a signed contract Complete New Employee Packet Sign up for health insurance etc.
DURING YOUR FIRST TWO WEEKS Obtain Employee identification card Obtain access key card
Complete benefits worksheet etc.
AFTER YOUR FIRST THREE MONTHS, YOU SHOULD KNOW…
ABOUT YOUR JOB
Department’s goals and mission Department organization and personnel Your reporting lines
Your duties and responsibilities etc.
ABOUT YOUR WORK ENVIRONMENT your work area and office
your colleagues and their job functions how to use email and phones
how to obtain/order office supplies and resources etc.
ABOUT YOUR PAY your pay rate
overtime policies and regulations travel reimbursement procedures
accrual policies for sick and vacation days etc.
ABOUT YOUR RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES benefits available to you and your family
organizational policies on equal employment opportunities, sexual harassment, etc.
formal training available to you
policies on discipline and procedures governing your employment etc.
F I G U R E 7 . 1
Example of a New Employee Orientation Checklist (abbreviated)
Areas of Employee Training 159 Although new employee orientation and training are a large part of most
organizations’ training programs, many do not give sufficient attention or resources to this area, despite its very important role in creating a productive and dedicated workforce. In fact, research shows that new workers are often eager and willing to learn (Morrison, 1993). Moreover, evidence suggests that employees receiving adequate initial training are more satisfied and less likely to quit during the first six months of a job than workers who receive little initial training (Wanous, Poland, Premack, & Davis, 1992; Wanous, Stumpf, &
Bedrosian, 1979). It has been suggested that adequate new employee orien-tation programs can pay huge dividends over time in increased employee productivity and satisfaction with the job and the organization (Hacker, 2004).
It is important to note that initial employee orientation is mainly designed to acquaint new employees with the organization and with basic organiza-tional processes (Wesson & Gogus, 2005). (See Figure 7.1 for an example of an employee orientation program checklist.) A more in-depth process of socializing employees into the organization will be discussed in Chapter 11.
Retraining and continuing education programs
Considerable evidence indicates that a certain amount of the knowledge and skills of workers either erodes or becomes obsolete during their work careers (London & Bassman, 1989). To maintain workers’ proficiencies, organizations must encourage and support basic “refresher courses” as well as continuing education programs that provide workers with new information. With rapid technological advancements, it is critical that the skills and knowledge of per-sons employed in jobs that require the use of advanced technology be con-stantly updated.
A retirement planning session, or brochure for retirement planning.
Certain professionals, particularly those in licensed health-care professions such as medicine, dentistry, and clinical psychology, require some form of con-tinuing education to continue to work in the field. Other professionals, such as managers, lawyers, engineers, and architects, are also increasingly encouraged to participate in continuing education programs.
Research on employee retraining suggests that older employees may resist retraining efforts due to lack of self-confidence in their ability to learn (Maurer, 2001). It has been suggested that organizations need to provide incentives and support for older workers’ participation in retraining programs (Warr & Birdi, 1998).
Retirement planning and preparation
The training departments of many organizations offer employees assistance in planning and preparing for retirement. Research suggests that many workers do not prepare well (or at all) for retirement (Kim & Moen, 2001). Seminars are offered on such topics as making the retirement decision, retirement plans and options, investment and money management, and services and opportuni-ties for retirees and seniors. More general programs aimed at helping retirees adjust to a nonworking lifestyle are also offered. An increase in preretirement training programs reflects a general trend toward more employee training and greater concern for employees’ pre- and postretirement welfare. One study found that both pre- and postretirement planning were needed for employees to successfully retire (Donaldson, Earl, & Muratore, 2010).
Employee career development
Organizations are becoming more and more aware of the need for greater attention to the development and planning of employees’ careers. Helping workers plan their careers can help lead to a more productive, more satisfied, and more loyal workforce (Gaffney, 2005; Noe, 1996). Many orga-nizations have developed formal career development systems, which benefit all parties involved, including workers, managers, and the organization (see Table 7.1).
Career development systems typically offer a variety of programs, includ-ing career counselinclud-ing, courses in career planninclud-ing, and workshops that provide tools and techniques for helping employees manage their careers.
For example, career counseling programs might help individuals set career goals and develop a plan for getting the type of training and education necessary to meet those goals. They may also assist in finding jobs for employees who are about to be laid off. With increased job mobility and orga-nizational downsizing, research has demonstrated that it is very important today for employees to learn to take responsibility for and “self-manage”
their careers (Barnett & Bradley, 2007; Kossek, Roberts, Fisher, & DeMarr, 1998). Moreover, companies that demonstrate they are concerned about employee career advancement are going to be more successful at attracting and retaining employees.
Areas of Employee Training 161
Training workers for international assignments
The increasing globalization of business means that many workers will be required to interface with representatives of organizations based in other nations. In some cases, workers may work for a foreign-based company, or they may spend some time working in a host country. Working in another culture requires specialized training (Shen, 2005; Tung, 1997).
There are many important objectives for programs to train employees for work in international settings. Some of the skills required for working in another culture include foreign language skills, knowledge of the host country’s general culture, and knowledge of the country’s specific business culture and work rules (Ronen, 1989). Some scholars have suggested that the best workers—those who can easily adjust to different international assignments—are those who possess what has been called “cultural intelligence” (Offerman & Phan, 2002). More recently, it has been suggested that managers who are destined for interna-tional assignment should view this sort of cross-cultural training as an ongoing process of development (Teagarden, 2007).
TABLE 7.1
Benefits of a Career Development System
For Managers/Supervisors For Employees For the Organization
Increased skill in managing own careers
Greater retention of valued employees
Better communication between manager and employee
More realistic staff and development planning
Productive performance appraisal discussions
Increased understanding of the organization
Enhanced reputation as a people developer
Employee motivation for accepting new responsibilities
Build talent inventory for special projects Clarification of fit between organizational and individual goals
Helpful assistance with career decisions and changes Enrichment of present job and increased job satisfaction Better communication between employee and manager
More realistic goals and expectations Better feedback on performance Current information about the organization and future trends Greater sense of personal responsibility for managing career
Better use of employee skills Increased loyalty
Dissemination of information at all organizational levels
Better communication within organiza-tion as a whole
Greater retention of valued employees Expanded public image as a people-developing organization
Increased effectiveness of personnel systems and procedures
Source: Leibowitz, Z. B., Farren, C., & Kaye B. I. (1986). Designing Career Development Systems (p. 7). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Training in diversity issues, harassment, and ethical behavior
With internationalization and increased access to jobs, work groups are becoming increasingly diverse, with more women and older employees in the workforce, as well as national and cultural diversity. This has prompted organizations to allo-cate resources to diversity training programs and efforts to prevent harassment, including sexual harassment. Besides helping to fight discrimination against specific groups of employees, diversity training is also aimed at capitalizing on the advantages of diverse work teams, as we saw in Chapter 1.
Most diversity training programs seek to raise employees’ awareness of diver-sity issues, to try to increase understanding of people from other backgrounds and cultures, and to strive to change negative attitudes and behaviors. There is evidence that diversity training can help employees in the implementation of diversity initiatives and making such programs work (Combs & Luthans, 2007).
The Hong Kong Bank and the Bank of Montreal have longstanding training programs to deal with issues related to gender, racial, and cultural diversity (Tung, 1997).
Nearly one-fourth of U.S. women report being sexually harassed at work, with more than half reporting they experienced potentially harassing behaviors (Ilies, Hauserman, Schwochau, & Stibal, 2003). As a result, employee sexual harassment training is becoming mandatory in many areas. Research evidence suggests that sexual harassment is affected by the organizational culture and climate (Fitzgerald, Drasgow, Hulin, Gelfand, & Magley, 1997). As a result, a majority of U.S. companies have developed training programs designed to reduce sexual harassment in the workplace. Many of these programs focus on increasing awareness of harassing behavior (e.g., Blakely, Blakely, & Moorman, 1998) and trying to neutralize situations and “cultures” that promote or allow sexual harassment. There is some evidence that sexual harassment training does indeed have positive effects, particularly in helping male employees better understand what sorts of behaviors constitute sexual harassment (Antecol &
Cobb-Clark, 2003). In addition, it has been suggested that sexual harassment training needs to focus both at the individual employee level and at the work group or team level (Raver & Gelfand, 2005).
Although health-care workers, lawyers, and other professional workers have had regular training in professional ethics, there has recently been increased attention to ethics training for a broader range of workers. In light of the many high-profile corporate ethical scandals, many organizations have developed ethics training programs for managers and for rank-and-file employees. Moreover, busi-ness schools have placed increased emphasis on ethics courses, although there is some concern about the success of ethics training courses (Allen, Bacdayan, Kowalski, & Roy, 2005). There is some preliminary evidence that ethics training in business does have positive effects (Valentine & Fleischman, 2004).
Team training
As organizations rely more and more on work teams, I/O psychologists and HR professionals have begun to realize the importance of training aimed at devel-oping the team as a group, rather than the individual focus that is common to