even greater expenditure of energy. The very energy requirement to change may be too much of a drain on an already overtaxed organization, and the energy required to be a leader of change in a resis-tant group can be overwhelming. For this reason, timing is a critical element of the change process.
Correctly determining when people are most recep-tive to the initiation of change can be the determin-ing factor in the success or failure of the change process. When people are dissatisfied with the sta-tus quo and yet not too overwhelmed with merely trying to keep up, the time for change is ripe.
People become comfortable with what “is.” The functional parameters are clear as are expectations and rewards. Change, by its very nature, moves peo-ple away from their comfort zones. By providing realistic planning of and adequate information about how the impending change will affect each of those areas, some—probably not all—of this resis-tance can be minimized.
Although legendary heroes and heroines led mas-sive societal changes, within an organization change rarely occurs without the assistance of others.
Frequently, individuals have great ideas that would truly improve the function of the organization, but because the idea cannot be implemented by one per-son, it becomes lost to the organization. The support of both formal and informal leaders can be a critical element to successful change. Both types of leaders have their own audiences and their own abilities to sway groups and influence the “in.” That buy-in and ownership of the change will become a shared vision for the organization that will draw in other supporters. Because the formal and informal leaders have, in essence, “blessed” the change, a number of trust issues for subordinates will also have been overcome.
and mastered with practice. If you have been given the responsibility of leading an organizational change, there are several practical steps you can take to increase your chance for success.
1. Begin by articulating the change vision clearly and concisely.
2. Select the change project team carefully.
3. Identify the formal and informal leaders who can help you implement the change success-fully.
4. Stay alert to political forces, both for and against the change.
5. Develop communication skills. Keep commu-nication lines open.
6. Practice problem-solving skills.
7. Develop conflict resolution skills.
8. Learn to trust yourself and your project team.
Functioning effectively as a change agent requires the nurse to have an understanding of the theoreti-cal frameworks of change. A discussion of several classic, as well as emerging, theories of change fol-lows.
KURT LEWIN’S FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS
Lewin’s Force Field Analysis is probably one of the best known and frequently used change theories (Tiffany et al., 1994). This theory conceptualizes change as movement across time. Lewin views be-havior as a dynamic balance of forces working in opposite direction within a field (individual or organization). According to Lewin, change occurs in response to disequilibrium within a system (Lewin, 1951). Therefore, in order to effect change, there must be an imbalance between the forces that push for change (driving forces) and those forces that oppose change (restraining forces) staving to main-tain the status quo. Basically, strategies for change are aimed at increasing driving forces and decreas-ing restraindecreas-ing forces. Lewin identified three phases of change: unfreezing, moving, and refreezing.
Unfreezing
Unfreezing the existing equilibrium involves moti-vating others for change. The change agent must loosen, or “unfreeze,” the forces that are maintain-ing the status quo. This involves increasmaintain-ing the per-ceived need for change and creating discontent with
the system as it exists. If individuals do not see a need for change, they are not likely to be motivated or ready for change and may even hinder change.
Assessment of readiness for change is critical in this phase.
Moving
During the moving phase, the change agent identi-fies, plans, and implements strategies to bring about the change. The change agent must do all that is possible to reduce restraining forces and strengthen driving forces. It is critical that the change agent continue to work to build trust and enlist as many others as possible. The more ownership there is in the change, the more likely the change will be adopted. Timing is also important during this phase.
People need time to assimilate change; therefore, the change agent must allow enough time for people to redefine how they view this change cognitively.
Refreezing
During the refreezing phase, the change agent reinforces new patterns of behavior brought about by the change. Institutionalizing the change by cre-ating new policies and procedures helps to refreeze the system at a new level of equilibrium. Refreezing has occurred when the new way of doing things becomes the new status quo.
LIPPITT’S PHASES OF CHANGE
Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory (1958) is built on the Lewin model. He extended the model to include seven steps in the change process. Lippitt’s model focuses more on the role of the change agent than on the evolution of the change process. Communication skills, team building, and problem solving are cen-tral to this theory. The participation of key person-nel, those most affected by the change, and those most critical in promoting the change is essential to the success of the change effort (Noone, 1987). The seven steps of Lippitt’s phases of change are:
Step 1: Diagnosis of the Problem
The person or organization must believe there is a problem that requires change. The change agent helps others see the need for change and involves 174 Skills for Being an Effective Leader
11Jones Leadership(F)-ch 11 1/14/07 3:42 PM Page 174
key people in data collecting and problem solving.
The ideal situation exists when both the organiza-tion and the change agent recognize and accept the need for change.
Step 2: Assessment of the Motivation and Capacity for Change
Determine if people are ready for change. Assess the financial and human resources. Are they sufficient for change? Analyze the structure and function of the organization. Will it support the change, or does there need to be organizational redesign? This pro-cess is essentially defining the restraining and driv-ing forces for change within the organization.
Step 3: Assessment of the Change Agent’s Motivation and Resources
This step is crucial to achieving change. The change agent (either an individual or a team) must count the personal cost of change. The change agent must be willing to make the commitment necessary to bring about the planned change. He or she must have the energy, time, and necessary power base to be successful. The change agent may take on the role of leader, expert consultant, facilitator, or cheer-leader, but whatever role is assumed, the change agent must be willing to see the change through.
Step 4: Selection of Progressive Change Objectives
The change is clearly defined in this step. Establish the change objectives. Develop a plan of action;
include specific strategies for meeting the objec-tives. Decide how to evaluate the change plan and final result.
Step 5: Implement the Plan
It is critical to remain flexible during implementa-tion. If resistance is higher than anticipated, slow down. Give others a chance to catch up. On the other hand, if all is going well and the momentum is good, keep the plan moving ahead.
Step 6: Maintenance of the Change
During this phase the change is integrated into the organization. It is becoming the new norm. In this
phase, the role of the change agent is to provide sup-port, positive feedback and, if necessary, make mod-ifications to the change.
Step 7: Termination of the Helping Relationship
The change agent gradually withdraws from the role and resumes the role of member of the organi-zation (Lippitt, Watson, & Wesley, 1958).
HAVELOCK’S MODEL
Havelock’s Six Step Change Model (1973) is another variation of Lewin’s change theory. The emphasis of this model is on the planning stage of change.
Havelock’s model asserts that with sufficient, care-ful, and thorough planning, change agents can over-come resistance to change. Using this model, essential to the success of change is inclusion. It is imperative that the change agent encourage partici-pation at all levels. This follows the assumption that the more people are part of the plan, the more they feel responsible for the outcome, and the more likely they will work to make the plan succeed.
The planning stage of Havelock’s model in-cludes: (1) building a relationship; (2) diagnosing the problem; and (3) acquiring resources. This plan-ning stage is followed by the moving stage, which includes choosing the solution and gaining accept-ance. The last stage is stabilization and renewal (Havelock, 1973).
ROGERS’ DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
Everett Rogers (1983) developed a diffusion theory, as opposed to a planned change theory. It is included with change theories because it describes how an individual or organization passes from “first knowl-edge of an innovation” to confirmation of the deci-sion to adopt or reject an innovation or change.
Rogers defined diffusion as “the process by which innovation is communicated through certain chan-nels over time among the members of a social sys-tem” (as cited in Hagerman and Tiffany, 1994, p. 58). Rogers’ framework emphasizes the reversible nature of change. Initial rejection of change does not mean the change will never occur. Likewise, the adoption of change does not ensure its
continua-Nurses Leading Change 175
11Jones Leadership(F)-ch 11 1/14/07 3:42 PM Page 175
tion. Rogers’ five-step innovation/decision-making process is:
Step 1: Knowledge
The decision-making unit (individual, team, or organization) is introduced to the innovation (change) and begins to understand it.
Step 2: Persuasion
The change agent works to develop a favorable atti-tude toward the innovation (change).
Step 3: Decision
A decision is made to adopt or reject the innovation.
Step 4: Implementation/Trial
The innovation is put in place. Reinvention or alter-ations may occur.
Step 5: Confirmation
The individual or decision-making unit seeks rein-forcement that the decision made was correct. It is at this point that a decision previously made may be reversed.
EMERGING MODELS OF CHANGE
The classic models of change are linear. While they have been used successfully in many situations, they may not be as useful as they once were in the complex, ever-changing health-care arena. Because health care is changing so rapidly, health-care orga-nizations must be able to organize and implement change quickly. The linear models of the past may not be sufficient to meet this challenge. Two models
of change that are quickly becoming recognized in leadership circles are the Learning Organizations and Chaos theories.
Learning Organizations Theory
The Learning Organizations Theory is based on sys-tems theory. It is a framework for seeing the inter-relatedness of relationships; the whole is not just the sum of its parts, because each separate part affects the whole. Indeed, each part is essential in defining the whole. Peter Senge (1990) described learning organizations as organizations where peo-ple at all levels are collectively and continuously working together to improve what they do. Learn-ing organizations celebrate differences and recog-nize that every member of the organization has something to contribute to organizational growth.
Over time, a learning organization embraces change as a means of creating the organizational environ-ment it desires. A learning organization develops the capacity to recreate itself in response to change.
Senge describes five disciplines that must be mas-tered if an organization is to achieve the status of a learning organization. Learning organizations model the change process (Table 11-3).
Discipline 1: Personal Mastery
First, the members of a learning organization must develop personal mastery. Personal mastery involves clarifying and deepening a personal vision.
There must be personal vision before there can be shared vision. People with a high level of personal mastery are continually expanding their ability to create the results they want in life. Two important characteristics of personal mastery are a clear vision of what one wants and the ability to see cur-176 Skills for Being an Effective Leader
Characteristics Common to Change Theories Problem identification Plan for innovation
Strategies to reduce resistance Evaluation plan
“Life uses messes to get to well ordered solutions. Life doesn’t seem to share our desires for efficiency or neatness. It uses redundancy, fuzziness, dense webs of relationships, and unending trials and errors to find what works. Life is intent on finding what works, not what’s “right.” It is the ability to keep finding solutions that is important; any one solution is temporary. There are no permanently right answers. The capacity to keep changing, to find what works now, is what keeps any organism alive” (Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 1996).
11Jones Leadership(F)-ch 11 1/14/07 3:42 PM Page 176