Ill. Food
IV. Clothing
§ 101. Clothing as a protection against cooling. The human body constantly gives off quantities of heat to the surrounding atmosphere, which quantities are greater, the lower the temperature of the air is. The clothing offers a protection against the cooling thus caused, which is specially notable in temperate and cold climates. Various materials are used in its manufacture, which are taken partly from the animal kingdom, as furs, leather, wool feathers, horsehair and silk; partly from the vegetable kingdom, as linen, cotton and india-rubber. The protection afforded to the body by such materials depends on their mode of bei11g woven and their heat conducting power. Materials which conduct heat badly-that is, slowly absorb and slowly diffuse it - best counteract the effects of cold. It is of course not a matter of in-difference, whether the body is surrounded by a single layer of clothing or with several garments, one laid on top of the other; the air between the different layers of clothing acts the same as a bad heat- conductor, separates the skin from the cold 'air round it and does not permit an immediate inter-change of heat between them. For the same reason porous material on account of the air enclosed in its pores contributes more to the preservation of the heat of the body than thick material. This explains, that our bands and our feet get easily cold in winter, when enclosed in tight leather gloves or boots, which do not permit the formation of a warm layer of air between our skin and these articles of clothing. Polar animals are specially fitted for enduring severe cold, because
they carry with them - the mammals in their furs, the birds in their feathers - and they are able to temporarily increase its volume by bristling their hair o'r ruffling their feathers.
Of the materials used for clothing, woolen stuffs afford a more effective protection against cold, on account of their greater porosity, than materials made from cotton, silk or linen;
the spongy rough washing leather keeps the body wanner than smooth patent-leather; furs are more beneficial in proportion to the length and thickness of the hairs. All these materials use their capacity for maintaining the heat of the body, by storing up the air; if they loose their hairs or pile by much wearing, or if by taking up dirt and dust they are becoming less capable of storing air. Even the dyeing of clothing ma-terials may injure their cold-resisting capacity, if the pores in the fabric are lessened in size by the colouring dye-stuff.
§ 102. Clothing as a protection against dampness. Be-sides the capacity of retaining air, many clothing materials are also capable of retaining moisture in their fibres and pores. They prevent in this way rain from penetrating to the skin, absorb the acqueous vapour from the atmosphere and the perspiration of the body and in this way protect the sur-face of the body from dampness. This advantage lasts however only so long, until a certain degree of saturation of the ma-terial is reached. Moisture, which exceeds this degree over-flows the pores and gives a damp character to the material, which produces uncomfortable sensations on the surface of the skin. At the same time the evaporation of the surplus moisture causes a cooling, which is felt to be equally un-pleasant and affords an occasion for colds.
Among our clothing materials toool absorbs moisture more slowly than cotton, silk or linen, moreover the last-named ma-terials are very soon saturated with moisture, while the ab-sorbent capacity of wool is far less limited. Furthermore silk, linen and cotton possess the unpleasant property of lying close to the skin when damp or wet, thereby producing the sensation of dampness on the surface of the body and favour-ing our catchfavour-ing cold; whereas wool, thanks to the elastic filaments, which give it its rough appearance lies even fLlrther from the skin, when thoroughly saturated, and allows a layer of air to continue as a safeguard against damp and cold.
On the other hand, wool as a clothing material is not lacking
104 B. The necessaries of life for the individual man.
in certain injurious qualities. Under certaiJJ. conditions it pro-motes excessive perspiration, which may be weakening the body; it delays the evaporation of perspiration and permits in summer refreshing cooling less than other materials.
And, as wool is generally relatively dearer, easily wears out in washing and by the reception of dirt and dust acquires an untidy appearance more slowly than other materials, it is usually cleaned less frequently than others. Woolen clothes therefore contain often large quantities of dirt; these not only lessen its capacity for absorbing air and water by filling up the pores of the material, but may also cause direct injury to health. Lastly it must be mentioned that woollen under-clothing sometimes causes severe irritation of the skin in persons not accustomed to it.
§ 103. Selection of the material for clothing. There is no clothing material to be preferred to others in every respect. Therefore in our choice we must pay attention to the season of" the year, the conditions of" the weather, the occupation and state ol health of the person to be clothed; moreover ma-terials for underclothin_q are to be selected differently from those for outer clothing.
In general wool is to be preferred, if it is intended to protect the body against frost, sudden cooling or wetting, while other materials may be freely selected as light clothing in warm, dry seasons of the year. Persons, who, in conse-quence of their occupation expose their bodies to the influence of the weather or become heated through muscular exertion and must then expose themselves to sudden cooling, for in-stance masons, sailors, pedestrians should wear woollen under-clothing; but in summer they ought not to wear too thick materials, because the accumulation of heat produced by muscular labour becomes dangerous by prolonged prevention of cooling; it may even lead to sunstroke.
Woollen underclothing is especially suitable for persons, who are disposed to catch cold, particularly to troubles with their respiratory organs, rheumatism of the joints and the muscles.
Linen or cotton underclothing is recommended in occupa-tions, which do not require any particular muscular effort, and are carried on in rooms of a pretty constant temperature.
One advantage of such clothing is its lightness and its pleasant qualities after more frequent change of clothes.
The choice of materials for outer garments is almost ex-clusively regulated by the season of the year and the weather.
In winter thick woollen stuffs are worn; in severe cold furs;
in summer garments of linen, cotton and silk. Woollen ma-terials, which have been made waterproof by particular processes i. e. whose fibres have been deprived of their power of ab-sorbing water protect the body best from getting wet. These have the advantage over the india-rubber materials, used for the same purpose that they are pervious to air, and therefore allow evaporation of the moisture of the skin, without which unhealthy disorders of its functions may easily ensue.
§ 104. Colour; shape and fastenings of garments. In the choice of garments their colour also is not unimportant;
because dark materials absorb the warm rays of the sun better than bright; therefore become easily warm in summer, and are to be preferred for winter use, while the latter are justly preferred in hot weather. We should also assure our-selves that no poisonous colours have been used in dyeing the materials selected.
The manner in wkich the clothing 'is worn is likewise not indifferent for our health. Our garments should neither inter-fere with the free movement of the body and its limbs, nor with breathing, digestion or the circulation of the blood.
Oppressively tight fitting garments are to be avoided, because they interfere with circulation as well as with the functions of the skin by compressing the skin-glands, and they do not permit of the formation of a layer of air between the skin and the garment.
§ 105. Clothing for the neck. By tight clothing around the neck obstacles are placed in the way of our breathing, and to the reflux of the blood from the head and brain, which may give rise to choking, to congestion of the brain, heading and fainting. On the other hand loose clothing around the neck assists the secretions from the skin with advantage, as it favours an interchange between the outer fresh air and the air under the garments of the trunk. Hardy persons like sailors dispense without injury with any covering of the. neck;
anyone however less inured to the influence of the weather does well to protect the neck against sudden cooling by suitable covering. Young and healthy persons are to be warned however against effeminacy through wearing thick mufflers, fur collars etc.
106 B. The necessaries of life for the individual man.
§ 106. Constriction of the body by the clothing, or by the way of fastening it. The fastening of the trousers by a belt prevents the movements of the intestines necessary for digestion and may contribute to the formation of what are called abdominal ruptures.
Fig. 29.
Position of the thoracic nnd abdomi-nal intestines in the natural
forma-tion of the thorax.
Fig. 31.
~qg, iSU.
Position of the thoracic and abdominal intestines in malformation of the thorax
by tight lacing.
F ig. 32.
Malfor mation of the thorax through tight
lacing. Malformation of the foot in a
pointed shoe (A).
These begin as a rule gradually, when the intestines (on drawing a deep breath, or coughing, another point of expansion becomes impossible or difficult; force their way outwards by degrees as far as the abdomen as far as the skin between the muscular fibres and the sinews; usually in the neighbourhood of the pelvis or close beneath it, near the upper thigh ( cf. § 7). In exceptional cases violent sudden shocks to the abdomen, as in jumping for instance can be the cause of rupture. This is in itself
a troublesome malady and can moreover cause digestive disorders and severe indispositions in case it is not confined by a suitable appliance, a truss.
The improper use of cm·sets by women, who believe that they are beautifying their forms by tight lacing may cause injury to their health. For tight lacing not only affects in-juriously breathing and digestion, but also leads to distur-bances of the circulation, to changes in the position and mal-formation of the inner organs and may even cause deformi-ties of the bones (Fig. 29 to 31). For the same reason warn-ings must be given against the use of rubber belts and the tying of petticoats (skirts) too tight.
§ 107. Garters; Boots and shoes. Tight garters prevent the circulation of the blood in the veins of the lower leg and foot and so cause the confinement of the blood to these limbs and the swelling of these bloodvessels, sometimes even so far, as to burst the veins and cause dangerous bleeding. In the neighbourhood of such swollen veins are often formed painful ulcers, which are difficult to heal. It has been therefore recommended not to fasten long stockings by means of tight garters, but by means of elastic bands, connected with the upper garments.
Particular attention must be paid to comfortably-fitting boots, which correspond to the natural shape of the foot. The shoe or boot should grasp the instep firmly, and not contract the heel too much, and leave sufficient space for free play of the toes, which at every step move forwards by the flattening of the arch ( cf. § 11) of the foot beneath the weight of the body. In consequence of the different shape of the two feet the right shoe must be different from the left. The stockings or wrappings round the feet must not be creased and ought to be kept carefully clean on account of the vigorous and frequent action of the feet. High heels render walking and standing difficult, as the elevation of the heels occasions an uneven exertion of the sinews of the flexor and extensor muscles, thereby easily tiring the muscles of the lower leg, creating moreover a disproportionate distribution of the weight upon the foot, inasmuch as that portion of the weight of the body, which under ordinary circumstances rests on the heels is thrown too much on the ball of the foot. A pointed shoe contracts the toes, thereby causing a malformation of the foot (Fig. 32) and promotes the painful ingrowing of the
toe-108 B. The necessaries o£ life £or the individual man.
nails into the soft tissues on the sides. The pressure of badly made shoes causes painful swellings, so-called corns, blisters and bunions.
All these evils, caused by defective shoes, even though they appear trifling in themselves lead to the mischief, that they prevent the persons, afflicted with them from taking part in those exercises in the open air, which health requires. If the feet are not washed frequently and carefully, painful in-flammations may arise through the penetration of dirt into the sore spots which sometimes may have serious consequences in regard to the utility of the feet, or the life of the indivi-dual. For the avoidance of such dangers cleanliness is im-perative especially for such persons, whose feet perspire easily and freely. Perspiration of the feet causes the accumulation of dirt and abrasions of the skin by means of the chemical decomposition which results therefrom, is easily perceived by its repulsive smell, and is the source of various diseases of the feet.
§ 108. Covering of the head. A heavy or unsuitable covering f'or the head causes a feeling of oppression, giddiness, headache, and contributes also to baldness, more especially, when it disturbs the airing of the skin of the head so covered by obstructing the free passage of air. The head-gear should therefore be light, should not press heavily on any part, and should either be made of porous material, or be provided with ventilating holes. In order to afford protection to the head and neck againt rain and the rays of the sun a broad brim is advantageous.
§ 109. The Bed. At night during our rest, while the clothing worn during the day is put aside, and exchanged for light night dresses, the bed affords protection against chills.
On account of the proportionately smaller capacity of the body for evolving heat, when at rest thicker materials are selected for bed- covering than for clothing. For healthy grown-up persons woollen or thickly-lined blankets or counter-panes are however sufficient as bed-covering, and for bed mat-tresses full of pinegrass, shavings or horsehair or well stuffed with straw. Heavy feather beds render the passage of air between the surface of the skin and its surroundings difficult, and if they are used at bedding, they tend to make the body effeminate. They can be recommended only for children.
old men and invalids for whom a large amount of heat is necessary. For the sake of cleanliness the counterpane is supplied with a cover and the underbed with sheets from linen or calico, which can be easily washed or exchanged. By means of frequent and regular shaking and airing the bedding should be freed from the dust particles and skin excreta which accumulate in it. The frame of the bed in order to render the access of air easy, must be raised from the ground and is also to be kept carefully from vermin.
§ 110. Cleanliness of clothing and bedding. The clean-liness of clothing and bedding is of the very greatest impor-tance for the preservation and furtherance of our health. As dirt prevents t!)e access of air (§ 101), causes foul odours by decomposition and readily aids the germination of diseases, it should not be tolerated on our clothing; no more than on our skin (§§ 49, 50). Undercothing should therefore be fre-quently and thoroughly washed, and the outer garments should be daily brushed and shaken. The garments of others should never be worn without a thorough previous cleaning and linen should never be used, without a thorough previous washing.