of processes and power relationships that determine the success or failure of sustainable tourism.
Good models of community participation and planning in tourism are increasingly available (Richards and Hall, 2000), and in particular the notion of destination ‘visioning ‘ is growing in acceptance as a means of communities taking control of their tourism futures (Murphy, 1985;
Haywood, 1988; Ritchie, 1999; Richards and Hall, 2000; Ruhanen and Cooper, 2003). But it must also be recognised that tourism takes place in many different social and political contexts and what works in one place may need adaptation for another. From this point of view, Go (2001) is less optimistic that there has been real progress in converting the good intentions of sustainable tourism into practice.
This also applies to the borrowing of concepts and techniques from other subject areas and industries. Nevertheless, tourism has much to learn from others. In particular, techniques of environmental manage-ment, visitor planning and managemanage-ment, and studies of visitor/environ-ment relationships are well developed in the recreation literature, and are just as applicable to tourism (Cooper, 1991). In particular, recreational managers are much more advanced in their use of the notion of ‘capac-ity’ than are tourism planners (Barkham, 1973; McCool and Lime, 2001), although such mechanistic planning techniques are now being questioned (Butler, 1996).
Perhaps the central issues emerging from this section are the gradual shift from short-term to longer-term thinking and planning in tourism; it is no longer acceptable for the industry to exploit and ‘use up’ destina-tions and then move on (Cooper, 1995). In addition there is an urgent need for tourism to sharpen up its terminology (e.g., alternative? responsible?
soft, appropriate tourism?), to think clearly about the implications of sus-tainable/responsible initiatives, and to develop a code of business ethics.
Fortunately the climate of thought is changing, albeit slowly. Increas-ingly politicians and planners are becoming aware of the longer-term social, economic, and environmental consequences of excessive and badly planned tourism expansion. Sharpley (2000), for example, calls for national and international cooperation to facilitate the adoption of sus-tainable tourism-development policies. However, he notes that ‘the polit-ical structure and fragmented nature of the industry suggest the politpolit-ical systems dedicated to equitable development and resource use are unlikely to be forthcoming.’ If the adverse effects of tourism are to be prevented or remedied, it is crucial that politicians and planners become less preoc-cupied with increasing the number of visitors (and indeed with volume as a yardstick of success) and devote more consideration to the long-term welfare of the resident population. As Ritchie and Crouch (2003) note, it is the enhanced welfare of the local community that is the key yardstick of success for a competitive destination.
Some key questions to be considered are:
1. How many and what type of tourists does the resident population of an area wish to attract?
2. What is the optimum number of tourists that the area can support in terms of its physical, environmental, and social carrying capacity?
3. How can these tourists contribute to the enhancement of the lifestyles of the residents?
Planning for the resultant impact of tourism necessitates a careful defini-tion of the respective responsibilities of the public and private sectors and communities. Planning should be designed to maximize the economic and social benefits of tourism to the resident population, whereas at the same time mitigating or preferably eliminating the adverse effects. In the past most of this type of planning has been remedial—it has taken place after much development has occurred. In the future, planners and com-munities must take a more proactive role in controlling the nature of such development in terms of stricter building and design regulations; con-trolled access to vulnerable sites and attractions; strict transport regula-tions, especially in core areas; and the use of entry fees, barriers, and designated routes for vehicles and pedestrians alike.
Tourism creates both positive and negative effects in the destination country or region. Thoughtful policy making and planning can do much to minimize or even remove the negative effects. Tourism can be a very positive means of increasing the economic, social, cultural, and environ-mental life of a country. The major issue now is can politicians, planners and developers, and citizens rise to the challenge and create a truly responsible, and thus acceptable, tourism industry, one which brings long-term benefits to residents and tourists alike without compromising the physical and cultural environment of the destination region.
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