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8. Institutionalise new approaches: Build new measurement systems which support the new processes and behaviours (what gets measured, gets done) and create structures which build new practices into day-to-day
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The secret to success is to let the situation choose the tool. By this we mean that before you can consider choosing a tool (certainly long before you attempt to develop solutions) there is much to be gained from a careful examination of the nature of the problem. We have to answer the questions – ‘What are the objectives?’ or what do we need to be good at – and ‘What are the obstacles?’ or what do we need to overcome before we can say that we have cracked it. Once we have the answers to these questions we can begin to choose appropriate tools – if the objectives are quality related and our problem is that we are too functionally focused then perhaps a Total Quality approach may provide the solutions, if the objective is to build to order and we have a high degree of variety in our products then perhaps a cellular manufacturing approach may lead us to new and successful ways of working.
Once we have understood these aspects of the situation then one further question remains and that is one of ‘style’. In other words, ‘which tools best suit our own personal and organisational style?’ A good tool will be one that the people in the organisation can readily pick up and use, building on what you have already got and even expanding and developing along with the project as understanding and motivation grows.
13.4 Organizational Learning
“In times of change the learners will inherit the earth, while the knowers will find themselves beautifully equipped to deal with a world that no longer exists”
Eric Hoffer
13.4.1 The Concept of Organizational Learning
Organizational learning is an influential theory, which has come into popular usage since its inception in the 1990’s. Much debate has been entered into over what organizational learning actually means. West and Burnes (2000) describe two key strands of thought. The first they describe as writers focusing more on descriptive or analytical studies, who believe that new ways of thinking are sufficient in themselves. This strand of thinking might be exemplified by Stata (1989). The second strand is those who take a prescriptive approach, believing behavioural change is required for learning to take place. This position is exemplified by Garvin (1993) and Pedler et al (1997) amongst others.
Perhaps Gray (2001) puts it best in saying that knowledge and learning are not goals in themselves and only generate economic value when they are used to solve problems, explore opportunities and make decisions. A useful summary of the position is offered by Garvin (1993) when describing the learning organization:
“A learning organization is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviours to reflect new knowledge and insights.”
West and Burnes (2000) build upon this to note that learning organizations have capacity for (amongst other things) systematic problem solving, experimentation, communicating effectively within and beyond the organization and systems thinking.
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13.4.2 The Individual Learning Cycle
The purpose of this section is not to review the body of work done on learning or learning styles over the past 30 years, but simply to look at the concept of a cycle of learning as postulated by Kolb (1984) and generally accepted by subsequent authors. This will be used as a basis for developing the organizational learning cycle, which underpins much of the thinking on organizational learning.
Figure 13.6. Kolb’s Learning Cycle (Kolb, 1984)
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The cycle begins with the learner undergoing a concrete experience. The learner then reflects on the experience in the light of their context (usually the work context) and is able to draw upon this to create an abstract concept of how a process should be managed in their work context. The learner can then experiment with applying this concept and experiencing the responses of the system and the individuals in it. This experience is, in turn, reflected upon and modifies or underpins the concept, leading to more experimentation, and so on.
Learning is often not associated with educative inputs, and can often be contrary to the stated aims and approaches of the organization if experience does not align with that vision. For example, the experience might be the individual being reprimanded for missing a deadline when that decision was taken in order to avoid delivering poor quality. Reflection upon this in the light of the stated emphasis of the company on quality and further observations of management behaviour might lead the learner to construct a concept which states that the company’s commitment to quality is a sham. Experimentation might consist of trading off in favour of timeliness or cost and allowing quality to suffer when these measures are in conflict. Management’s reaction to these decisions will be carefully observed to validate or modify the concept. If they align better with the concept than the company’s pronouncements this becomes the learner’s reality.
The learning cycle is operative at all times on a wide variety of issues. Clearly, if properly considered and acted upon this can be helpful in generating concepts and associated behaviours that will help the organization in achieving its goals.
However, if ignored then it may allow the generation of concepts harmful to the goals of the company.
13.4.3 The Organizational Learning Cycle
Just as an individual learns in a cyclical manner, an organizational learning cycle can be identified. Dixon (1994) described such a cycle.
Figure 13.7. The Organizational Learning Cycle (Dixon, 1994)
• Experiences need to be spread throughout the organization in order to generate learning.
• Reflection, at this higher level, requires the integration of the experience into an organizational context.
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• To create shared concepts and mental models collective interpretation of the contextualised experience takes place.
• As for the individual, action is required to test the analysis, which underpins the interpretation.
Organizational learning can take place at a number of levels; it can apply to small teams, departments or the organization as a whole. This can account for the apparent inconsistencies in behaviour and ethos between departments in the same organization. The models and behaviours, which form the essence of the departmental culture, are the results of learning mechanisms that have taken place over time in those departments.
Similarly to individual learning, organizational learning is often happening in an unconscious and uncontrolled fashion.
The danger of this is that the learning may be counter to the desired direction of the organization. This is by no means to imply that learning is to be discouraged, if an organization is to survive in an evolving marketplace then learning and adapting are essential. In essence, the organization needs to understand the learning mechanisms that are strongest in the business and develop structures and systems to support the learning and influence it towards positive outcomes.
For successful Organizational Learning it is necessary to have both a process for learning, and an environment conducive to learning.
13.4.5 Huber’s Model of the Organizational Learning Process
Huber’s (1991) model of OL developed from a meta-study of the literature at the time suggests a structured approach which could clearly be managed included 4 components:
1. Knowledge acquisition is the phase where new knowledge is generated or existing knowledge is brought into