5.1. Kesimpulan
- Jenis ikan Cichlid di Waduk Sermo ditemukan sebanyak lima spesies. Jenis ikan invasif di Waduk Sermo adalah Amphilophus labiatus dan A. citrinellus. Status populasi ikan red devil di Waduk Sermo masih tinggi dengan rasio pemijahan mencapai 58%. Ikan red devil telah mendominasi komunitas ikan sebesar 94,54%. Kajian risiko keberadaan ikan red devil di Waduk Sermo perlu dilakukan pengendalian populasi.
- Jenis ikan Cichlid yang berhasil dikumpulkan untuk data base terdiri atas beberapa jenis, yaitu ikan red devil (A.
labiatus) dari Waduk Sermo; ikan red devil (A.
citrinellus) dari Waduk Sermo Waduk Jatiluhur, dan Waduk Cirata; ikan nila (Oreochromis niloticus) dari Waduk Jatiluhur dan Sermo; ikan mujair (O.
mossambicus) dari Waduk Sermo; ikan louhan (Cichlasoma trimaculatum) dari Waduk Sempor, ikan ABRI/golsom (Hemichromis fasciatus), ikan Mayaheros urophthalmum dari Waduk Jatiluhur; ikan zebra (Amatitlania nigrofasciata) dari Waduk Darma, dan ikan jaguar/marinir (Parachromis managuensis) dari Waduk Jatiluhur dan Waduk Sermo.
- Model pengendalian populasi ikan red devil dengan penangkapan perlu meningkatkan penangkapan hingga tiga kali lipat menggunakan jaring insang mesh size 1,5 inci (D=0,15 cm) di zona litoral strata kedalaman permukaan, terutama pada bulan April dan Agustus.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 74
5.2. Saran
Riset untuk monitoring status populasi ikan red devil perlu dilakukan agar kebijakan pengendalian ikan asing invasif berjalan secara komprehensif dan berkesinambungan.
Data base untuk jenis-jenis ikan Cichlid yang berpotensi dan telah berstatus invasif di seluruh perairan umum daratan Indonesia perlu dikumpulkan sebagai tindakan pencegahan, edukasi, dan data utuh untuk pengendalian ikan asing invasif di Indonesia.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 75
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Adams, C. E., Rohlf, F. J., & Slice, D. E. (2004). Geometric morphometrics: ten years of progress following the 'revolution'. Ital. J. Zool. (Modena), 71(1), 5-16. doi:
10.1080/11250000409356545.
Adjie, S. & Fatah, K. (2015). Biologi reproduksi ikan red devil (Amphilophus labiatus) dan (Amphilophus citrinellus) di Waduk Kedung Ombo, Jawa Tengah. BAWAL, 7(1), 17-24. doi: 10.15578/bawal.7.1.2015.17-17-24.
Altschul, S. F., Madden, T. L., Schaffer, A. A., Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., Miller, W., & Lipman, D. J. (1997). Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: A new generation of protein database search programs. Nucl. Acids Res., 25, 3389-3402.
APHA (American Public Health Association). (2005).
Standard method the examination of water and wastewater.15th edition (p. 1.134). Washington, DC.:
Am. Public Health Ass., Am. Water Works Ass.
Aranishi, F., Okimoto, T., & Izumi, S. (2005). Identification of gadoid species (Pisces, Gadidae) by PCR-RFLP analysis. Journal of Applied Genetics, 46(1), 69-73 Ariasari, A., Helmiati, S., & Setyobudi, E. (2018). Food
preference of red devil (Amphilophus labiatus) in the Sermo Reservoir, Kulon Progo Regency. In IOP Conf.
Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 139(1) (p. 9). Yogyakarta. doi :10.1088/1755-1315/139/1/012018.
Bagenal, T. B. & Braum, E. (1978). Eggs and early life history (pp. 165-201). In Bagenal, T. (ed.). Methods for Assessment of Fish Production in Freshwaters.Oxford, England: Blackwell.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 76
Barluenga, M., Stölting, K. N., Salzburger, W., Muschick, M.,
& Meyer, A. (2006). Sympatric speciation in Nicaraguan crater lake cichlid fish. Nature, 439(7077), 719.
Bellinger, E. G. & Sigee, D. C. (2010). Freshwater algae, identification and use as bioindicators (p. 271).
Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Bomford, M. & Glover, J. (2004). Risk assessment model for the import and keeping of exotic freshwater and estuarine finfish (p. 125). Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Rural Sciences.
Callejas, C., & Ochando, M. D. (2001). Molecular identification (RAPD) of the eight species of the genus Barbus (Cyprinidae) in the Iberian Peninsula. Journal of Fish Biology, 59(6), 1589-1599
Canonico, G. C., Arthington, A., Mccrary, J. K., & Thieme, M.
L. (2005). The effects of introduced tilapias on native biodiversity. Aquatic Conserv.: Mar. Freshw.Ecosyst., 15, 463-483. doi: 10.1002/aqc.699.
Chen, S. L., Li, J., Deng, S. P., Tian, Y. S., Wang, Q. Y., Zhuang, Z. M., & Xu, J. Y. (2007). Isolation of female-specific AFLP markers and molecular identification of genetic sex in half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis). Marine Biotechnology, 9(2), 273-280.
Christensen, V. & Pauly, D. (1992). The ECOPATH II-a software for balancing steady-state ecosystem models and calculating network characteristics. Ecological Modelling, 61, 169-185.
Colwell, R. K. & Futuyma, D. J. (1971). On the Measurement of Niche Breadth and Overlap. Ecology, 52(4), 567-576.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 77
Colombo, M., Diepeveen, E. T., Muschick, M., Santos, M. E., Indermaur, A., Boileau, N., & Salzburger, W. (2013).
The ecological and genetic basis of convergent thick‐ lipped phenotypes in cichlid fishes. Molecular Ecology, 22(3), 670-684.
Copp, G. H., Garthwaite, R., & Gozlan, R. E. (2005). Risk identification and assessment of non-native freshwater fishes: concepts and perspectives on protocols for the UK. Sci. Ser. Tech Rep., Cefas Lowestoft, 129, 32 p.
Dewantoro, G. W. & Rachmatika, I. (2016). Jenis ikan introduksi dan invasif asing di Indonesia (p. 210).
Jakarta: LIPI Press.
Dooley, J. J., Sage, H. D., Clarke, M. A. L., Brown, H. M., &
Garrett, S. D. (2005). Fish species identification using PCR− RFLP analysis and lab-on-a-chip capillary electrophoresis: application to detect white fish species in food products and an interlaboratory study. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(9), 3348-3357.
Edmonson, W. T. (1978). Freshwater biology 2nd Ed (p.
1.248). New York: John Wiley & Sonc, Inc.
Effendie, M. I. (1979). Metode biologi perikanan (p. 112).
Bogor: Yayasan Dewi Sri.
Fernández, A., García, T., Asensio, L., Rodríguez, M. Á., González, I., Céspedes, A., & Martín, R. (2000).
Identification of the clam species Ruditapes decussatus (grooved carpet shell), Venerupis pullastra (pullet carpet shell), and Ruditapes philippinarum (Japanese carpet shell) by PCR-RFLP. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 48(8), 3336-3341
Draft Laporan Tahunan 78
Folmer, O., Black, M., Hoeh, W., Lutz, R., & Vrijenhoek, R.
(1994). DNA primers for amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I from diverse metazoan invertebrates. Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol, 3(5), 294-9.
Froese, R. & Pauly, D. (eds). (2018). FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. www.fishbase.org, version (06/2018).
Gaspar da Luz, K. D., Abujanra, F., Agostinho, A. A., &
Gomes, L. C. (2001). Caracterização trófica de três lagoas na planície aluvial do alto rio Paraná, Brasil.
Acta Sci., 23, 401-407.
Gayanilo, F. C. Jr., Sparre, P., & Pauly, D. (2005). FAO-ICLARM Stock Assessment Tools II (FiSAT II), Revised version, User's guide(p. 180). FAO Computerized Information Series (Fisheries) No. 8. Rome: FAO.
Grossman, G. D. (1986). Food resource partitioning in a rocky intertidal fish assemblage. J. Zool. Lond., 1, 317-355.
Hebert, P. D., Cywinska, A., Ball, S. L., & Dewaard, J. R.
(2003). Biological identifications through DNA barcodes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.
Series B: Biological Sciences, 270(1512), 313-321.
Hedianto, D. A. & Purnomo, K. (2012). Indikasi invasi ikan spesies asing di Waduk Sempor (Jawa Tengah) dan Waduk Sermo (Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta). In Seminar Nasional Perikanan Indonesia Hasil Penelitian Perikanan dan Kelautan(pp. 590-599). Jakarta:Sekolah Tinggi Perikanan, Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan.
Hedianto, D. A. & Purnamaningtyas, S. E. (2013). Biologi reproduksi ikan golsom (Hemichromis elongatus,
Draft Laporan Tahunan 79
Guichenot 1861) diWaduk Cirata, Jawa Barat. BAWAL,
5(3), 159-166. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/bawal.5.3.2013.159-166.
Hedianto, D. A., Purnomo, K., & Warsa, A. (2013). Interaksi pemanfaatan pakan alami oleh komunitas ikan di Waduk Penjalin, Jawa Tengah. BAWAL, 5(1), 33-40. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/bawal.5.1.2013.33-40.
Hedianto, D. A. & Satria, H. (2017). Pendekatan pola peremajaan dan laju eksploitasi ikan louhan untuk pengendalian ikan asing invasif di Danau Matano, Sulawesi Selatan. J. Lit. Perikan. Ind., 23(4), 227-239.
Hedianto, D. A., Sentosa, A. A., & Satria, H. (2018). Aspek reproduksi ikan louhan hibrid sebagai ikan asing invasif di Danau Matano, Sulawesi Selatan. BAWAL, 10(2),
69-82. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/bawal.10.2.2018.69-82.
Helfman, G.S. (2007). Fish Conservation: a Guide to Understanding and restoring global aquatic biodiversity and Fishery Resources(p. 584). Washington, USA:
Island Press.
Herder, F., Schliewen, U. K., Geiger, M. F., Hadiaty, R. K., Gray, S. M., McKinnon, J. S.,Walter, R. P., & Pfaender, J. (2012). Alien invasion in Wallace’s Dreamponds:
records of the hybridogenic “flowerhorn” Cichlid in Lake Matano, with an annotated checklist of fish species introduced to the Malili Lakes system in Sulawesi. Aquatic Invasions, 7(4), 521–535. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.3391/ai.2012.7.4.009.
Hordyk, A., Ono, K., Valencia, S., Loneragan, N., & Prince, J.
(2014). A novel length-based empirical estimation method of spawning potential ratio (SPR), and test of its performance, for small-scale, data-poor fisheries.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 80
ICES J. Mar. Sci., 72(1),
217-231.doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu004, 1-15.
King, M. (2012). Fisheries biology, assessment and management, 2nd edition(p. 396).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Kolding, J. (1989). The fish resources of Lake Turkana and their environment (p. 262). Thesis for the Cand. Scient.
degree in Fisheries Biology and Final Report of KEN 043 Trial Fishery 1986-1987. University of Bergen.
Kottelat, M., Whitten, J. A., Kartikasari, S. N., &
Wirjoatmodjo, S. (1993). Freshwater fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi (p. 377). Hongkong: Periplus Edition (HK) Ltd.
Krebs, C. J. (1989). Ecological methodology (p. 654). New York: University of British Columbia. Harper and Row Publisher.
Kullander, S. O. (2003). Family cichlidae (cichlids) (pp. 605-654). In Reis, R. E., Kullander, S. O., & Ferraris Jr, C. J.
(eds.). Checklist of the Freshwater Fishes of South and Central America. Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS.
Lara, A., Ponce de León, J. L., Rodriguez, R., Casane, D., Cote, G., Bernatchez, L., & García‐Machado, E. R. I. K.
(2010). DNA barcoding of Cuban freshwater fishes:
evidence for cryptic species and taxonomic conflicts. Molecular Ecology Resources, 10(3), 421-430.
Magurran, A. E. (2004). Measuring biological diversity (p.
256). Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.
Mattjik, A. A. & Sumertajaya, I. M. (2013). Perancangan percobaan dengan aplikasi SAS dan Minitab. Jilid I(p.
349). Bogor: PT. Penerbit IPB Press.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 81
Mildenberger, T. K., Taylor, M. H., & Wolff, M. (2017).
TropFishR: an R package for fisheries analysis with length-frequency data. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 8(11), 1520-1527. doi:10.1111/2041-210x.12791.
Miller, M. P. (1997). Tools for Population Genetic Analysis (TFPGA). Version 1.3. Department of Biological Sciences, NorthernArizona University, Flagstaff.
McNeely, J. A., Mooney, H. A., Neville, L. E., Schei, P., &
Waage, J. K. (2001). A global strategy on invasive alien species (p. 50). United Kingdom: IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge.
Moles, M. D., Robinson, B. W., Johnston, T. A., Cunjak, R. A., Jardine, T. D., Casselman, J. M., & Legget, W. C.
(2010). Morphological and trophic differentiation of growth morphotypes of walleye (Sander vitreus) from Lake Winnipeg, Canada. Can. J. Zool., 88, 950-960. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1139/Z10-062.
Moyle, P. B. & Senanayake, F. R. (1984). Resource partitioning among the fishes of rainforest streams in Sri Lanka. J. Zool. Lond., 202, 195-223.
Natarajan, A. V. & Jhingran, A. G. (1961). Index of preponderance-a method of grading the food elements in the stomach analysis of fishes. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 8(1), 54-59.
Near, T. J., & Benard, M. F. (2004). Rapid allopatric speciation in logperch darters (Percidae:
Percina). Evolution, 58(12), 2798-2808.
Needham, J. G. & Needham, P. R. (1963). A guide to the study of freshwater biology, 5th Ed (p. 180). Revised and Enlarged. San Fransisco: Holden Day, Inc.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 82
Nei, M. & Tajima, F. (1981). DNA polymorphismdetectable by restriction endonucleases. Genetics, 97, 145-163.
Nielsen, L. A. & Johnson, D. L. (1985). Fisheries techniques (p. 468). Bethesda, Maryland: American Fisheries Society.
Nikolsky, G. V. (1963). The ecology of fishes(p. 352). Transl.
by L. Birkett. New York: Academic Press.
Novakowski, G. C., Hahn, N. S., & Fugi, R. (2008). Diet seasonality and food overlap of the fish assemblage in a pantanal pond. Neotropical Ichthyology, 6(4),567-576.
Odum, E. P. (1971). Fundamental of ecology 3rd edition (p.
574). Phyladelpia: W. B. Saunders Company.
Oliveira, J. C. S., Angelini, R., & Nahum, V. J. I. (2014). Diet and niche breadth and overlap in fish communities within the area affected by an Amazonian reservoir (Amapá, Brazil). Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 86(1), 383-405.
Ohee, H. L., Sujarta, P., Surbakti, S. B. R., & Barclay, H.
(2018). Rapid expansion and biodiversity impacts of the red devil cichlid (Amphilophus labiatus, Günther 1864) in Lake Sentani, Papua, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 19(6), 2096-2103. doi: 10.13057/biodiv/d190615.
Panprommin, D., Soontornprasit, K., & Pangeson, T. (2019).
Comparison of three molecular methods for species identification of the family Cichlidae in Kwan Phayao, Thailand. Mitochondrial DNA Part A, 30(1), 184-190.
Parsons, K. J., Robinson, B. W., & Hrbek, T. (2003) Getting into shape: an empirical comparisons of traditional truss-based morphometric methods with a newer geometric method applied to new world cichlids.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 83
Environ. Biol. Fishes, 67(4), 417-431. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025895317253.
Pauly, D. (1980). On the interrelationships between natural mortality, growth parameters and mean environmental temperature in 175 fish stocks. J. Cons. int. Explor.
Mer., 39(2), 175-192.
Pauly, D. (1982). Studying single species dynamics in multispecies context (pp. 33-70). In Pauly,D.& Murphy, G. I. (eds.) Theory and management of tropical fisheries. Manila: ICLARM Conference Proceeding 9.
Pauly, D. (1983a). Some simple method fos assessment to tropical stock. FAO Fish Tech. Paper, 234: 52 p.
Pauly, D. (1983b). Length-converted catch curves: a powerful tool for fisheries research in the tropics (Part I). Fishbyte, 1(2), 9-13.
Pauly, D. & Munro, J. L. (1984). Once more on the comparison of growth in fish and invertebrates.
Fishbyte, 2(1), 21 p.
Pauly, D., Trites, A., Capuli, E., & Christensen, V. (1998).
Diet composition and trophic levels of marine mammals. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 55, 467-481.
Pielou, E. C. (1966). The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. J. Theoret.
Biol., 13, 131-144.
Pinkas, L., Oliphant, M. S., & Iverson, I. L. K. (1971). Food habits of albacore, bluefin tuna and bonito in Californian waters. Fish Bull. Calif. Dept. Fish Game,152, 1-105.
Prince, J., Hordyk, A., Valencia, S.R., Loneragan, N., &
Sainsbury, K. (2014). Revisiting the concept of Beverton – Holt life history invariants with the aim of
Draft Laporan Tahunan 84
informing data poor fisheries assessment. ICES J. Mar.
Sci. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu011, 1-10.
Pritchard, J. K., Stephens, M.,& Donnelly, P. (2000). Infenece of Population Structure Using Molytilocus Genotype Data. Genetic, 155, 945-959.
Purnomo, K., Kartamihardja, E. S., Fahmi, Z. Warsa, A., Hedianto, D. A., Romdon, S.,& Waino. (2013). Penelitian biologi populasi ikan spesies asing invasif dan alternatif teknologi pengendaliannya di Waduk Ir. H. Djuanda (Jawa Barat), Waduk Sermo (Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta), serta Waduk Kedung Ombo dan Sempor (Jawa Tengah) (p. 100). Laporan Akhir. Balai Penelitian Pemulihan dan Konservasi Sumber Daya Ikan, Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan.
Reid, W. V. & Miller, K. R. (1989). Keeping option alive: the scientific basic for conserving biodiversity(p. 128).
Washington, USA.: World Resources Institute.
Sentosa, A. A. & Wijaya, D. (2013). Potensi invasif ikan zebra Cichlid (Amatitlania nigrofasciata Günther, 1867) di Danau Beratan, Bali ditinjau dari aspek biologinya.
BAWAL, 5(2), 113-121. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/bawal.5.2.2013.113-121.
Setyobudiandi, I., Sulistiono, Yulianda, F., Kusmana, C., Hariyadi, S., Damar, A., Sembiring, A., & Bahtiar.
(2009). Sampling dan analisis data perikanan dan kelautan: terapan metode pengambilan contoh di wilayah pesisir dan laut (p. 319). Cetakan 1. Bogor:
Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan, Institut Pertanian Bogor.
Smith, P. F., Konings, A. D., & Kornfield, I. R. V. (2003).
Hybrid origin of a cichlid population in Lake Malawi:
Draft Laporan Tahunan 85
implications for genetic variation and species diversity. Molecular Ecology, 12(9), 2497-2504.
Sparre, P. & Venema, S. C. (1999). Introduksi Pengkajian Stok Ikan Tropis. Buku 1. Manual(p. 438). Jakarta:
Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perikanan.
Tampubolon, P. A. R. P., Rahardjo, M. F., & Krismono. D. S.
P. (2012). Pertumbuhan ikan oskar (Amphilophus citrinellus, Günther 1864) di Waduk Ir H. Djuanda, Jawa Barat. J. Iktio. Ind., 12(2), 195-202
Tampubolon, P. A. R. P., Rahardjo, M. F., & Krismono.
(2014). Potensi ancaman invasif ikan oskar (Amphilophus citrinellus) di Waduk Ir. H. Djuanda, Jawa Barat. Widyariset, 17(3), 311-322. doi:
10.14203/widyariset.17.3.2014.311-321.
Tamura, K., Dudley, J., Nei, M., & Kumar, S. (2007). Mega Molecular Evolutionary Genetic Analysis. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24, 1596-1599.
Teletchea, F. (2009). Molecular identification methods of fish species: reassessment and possible applications. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 19(3), 265.
Tjitrosoedirdjo, S., Tjitrosoedirdjo, S. S., & Setyawati, T.
(2016). Tumbuhan invasif dan pendekatan pengelolaannya (p. 300). Bogor: Seameo Biotrop.
Thorson, J. T., Cope, J. M., & Patrick, W. S. (2014).
Assessing the quality of life history information in publicly available databases. Ecological Applications, 24(1), 217-226. doi: 10.1890/12-1855.1.
Thorson, J. T., Munch, S. B., Cope, J. M., & Gao, J. (2017).
Predicting life history parameters for all fishes
Draft Laporan Tahunan 86
worldwide. Ecological Applications, 27(8), 2262-2276.
doi: 10.1002/eap.1606.
Verbrugge, L.N. H., Velde, G. V., Hendriks, A. J., Verreycken, H.,& Leuven, R. S. E. W. (2011). Risk classifications of aquatic non-native species:
application of contemporary european assessment protocols in different biogeographical settings. Aquatic Invasions,7,1-5.
Warsa, A. & Purnomo, K. (2013). Selektivitas jaring insang monofilamen dan aspek biologi ikan oscar (Amphilophus citrinellus) di Situ Panjalu, Ciamis. J. Lit.
Perikan. Ind., 19(2), 65-72. doi:
10.15578/jppi.19.2.2013.65-72
Ward, R. D., Holmes, B. H., White, W. T., & Last, P. R. (2008).
DNA barcoding Australasian chondrichthyans: results and potential uses in conservation. Marineand Freshwater Research, 59(1), 57-71.
Wargasasmita, S. (2005). Ancaman invasi ikan asing terhadap keanekaragaman ikan asli. Jurnal Iktiologi Indonesia, 5(1), 5-10.
Warsa, A. & Purnomo, K. (2013). Selektivitas jaring insang monofilamen dan aspek biologi ikan oscar (Amphilophus citrinellus) di Situ Panjalu, Ciamis. J. Lit.
Perikan. Ind., 19(2), 65-72. doi:
10.15578/jppi.19.2.2013.65-72.
Warsa, A., Soewardi, K., Hariyadi, S., & Haryadi, J. (2016).
Struktur komunitas ikan dan tingkat trofik di wilayah genangan Waduk Jatigede Prainudasi, Kabupaten Sumedang-Jawa Barat. BAWAL, 8(1): 29-36. doi:
10.15578/bawal.8.1.2016.29-36.
Draft Laporan Tahunan 87
Wilding, T.K. & Rowe, D.K. (2008). FRAM: a fish risk assessment model for the importation and management of alien freshwater fish in New Zealand (p. 30). NIWA Client Report: HAM2008-029 May 2008-NIWA Project:
BSPF082. New Zealand: National Institute of Water &
Atmospheric Research Ltd, Hamilton.
Xu, L., Van Damme, K., Li, H., Ji, Y., Wang, X., & Du, F.
(2019). A molecular approach to the identification of marine fish of the Dongsha Islands (South China Sea). Fisheries Research, 213, 105-112.
Yeh , F., Yang, C., &Boyle, T. (1999). Popgene Microsoft windows based freeware for population fenetic analysis. Edmonton, AB. Canada.
Zar, J. H. (1999). Biostatistical analysis, 4th ed (p. 663). New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River.