Impacts of the environment on tourism
Carl Cater
Environment as a hazardous resource?
As this volume has shown, the natural environment is a fundamental resource for tourism, and is often threatened by this activity from over- or inappropriate use. Furthermore, the relationship between tourism and the environment is complex and often confusing. This interaction may be described as a metaproblem (Hall 2008), in which these relationships are inherently messy. The sheer diversity of stakeholders; the deep cultural influences on tourism and our understanding of what constitutes nature (covered inPart 1);and the complexity of the environment itself, all contribute towards this mess. It is hoped that this collection contributes towards some understanding of the interaction of these myriad factors.
Some of this complexity has its origins through the gradual process of divorcing modern societies (especially Western ones) from the natural environment in which they were set.
However, recent trends have shown that we are rediscovering a desire to be close to nature, explained in Edward Wilson’s (1993) concept of ‘Biophilia’. The growth of sectors such as ecotourism show that there is a strong touristic desire to connect to the natural environment.
Of course one can only ‘love’ nature if one sees oneself as a discrete entity. Indeed, Franklin points out that the attractiveness of nature is at least partially culturally derived, being‘far from inevitable or‘natural’ or even in leisure terms, stable’ (Franklin 2003: 214). Nevertheless, it is important that there has been ‘a shift from a pastoral approach to nature to a consumer approach… this in itself is a huge and significant transition’ (Wilson 1992: 24). However, the legacy of the Cartesian division between humans and their environment means that tourism only complicates things further. For example, as Stonehouse and Crosbie (1995) have illustrated, the desire for wilderness and ‘treading where no human has done so before’ is a particular problem in polar tourism, as it is itself an inherently unsustainable concept. Therefore, if we are to achieve greater sustainability in tourism, it is not only a case of examining how our practices may impact the environment, but also considering how the environment impacts tourists.
Another consequence of the split between humans and nature is that we often take a resource-based view that the environment has to ‘provide’ for many forms of tourism and recreation. This might include snow for skiing or waves for surfing, with an early travel com-mentator suggesting that ‘mankinds’ holiday tastes are as diverse as his business pursuits, but
Nature is a never failing storehouse’ (Sinclair 1914). However, we do not always reflect that to some extent‘these activities involve pitting oneself against the elements of one’s environment’
(Lavoilette 2010: 2). This challenge does not always have to be active, in the sense of adventure tourism, for even the most psychocentric of tourists embark on some suspension of their normal environment.
Thus, the premise of this chapter is that often we are unprepared for the environments in which tourism takes place. Tourism, by its very desire for environments different to the every-day, embeds degrees of the unfamiliar at all levels. As a result, nature has the ability to‘bite back’ and impact on tourists more frequently than in everyday situations. Indeed, as Wilks and Coory show,‘travel medicine research shows that tourists are most likely to be injured while in unfamiliar surroundings and engaged in unfamiliar activities’ (Wilks and Coory 2002: 2). Fur-ther,‘injuries are the leading cause of travel-related mortality worldwide, accounting for up to 25 times more deaths than infectious disease’ (ibid.). Although it is impossible to catalogue all of the incidences of where the environment impacts on tourism, we can give a variety of examples across all forms of tourism to illustrate this conflict. However, it is not the intention of this chapter to be sensationalist, and the statistics used in this chapter should be seen in context, recognising for example the much higher number of tourist injuries and fatalities caused by road traffic accidents (usually making up as much as 50% of all accidental tourist fatalities). Further, it should be recognised that it is never the ‘fault’ of the environment; it is only our lack of understanding, or indeed connection to the environment, in which tourism takes place. Thus it is the intention of this chapter to show some examples of where these connections have failed, and through this scope solutions that exemplify greater respect.
Different environments offer markedly different threats to tourists. For example, if we com-pare work on accidental overseas visitor fatalities in Australia and New Zealand, the former has a much higher proportion of water-related deaths (23.8% to 11.9%), the latter a higher pro-portion of accidental falls and object strikes (8.1% to 15%) (Wilks et al. 2002; Bentley et al.
2001). This reflects the differences in environments and activities encountered by visitors to the two countries, the former more aquatic, and the latter more mountainous. Thus in an investi-gation of environmental impacts on tourism it makes sense to look at these threats in a range of different environments in turn.
Polar hazards
Polar regions are perhaps the most readily identifiable of challenging environments, with ‘a harsh climate and physical environment, the high degree of endemism amongflora and fauna, and an extremely sensitive environment’ (Hall and Johnston 1995: 6). It is certainly an environment in which tourist activity requires a high degree of technological intervention to survive. However, it is also a nature-based destination that has seen dramatic growth over the past two decades. This has brought with it an increasing incidence of tourist injuries. Building on a tradition of the‘race to the poles’ there are a number of high latitude events such as the North Pole marathon (North Pole Marathon 2011) in existence. Competitors brave high winds, -37°C temperatures, blizzards and snowdrifts to complete the 42.2-km race. The growing interest in areas of the Arctic for adventure tourists has also brought them into contact with dangerous wildlife. On the Nor-wegian island of Svalbard there have been only four fatal polar bear attacks since the 1970s, although tourists were killed in two separate incidents in 1995 (IUCN 1998). However, in 2010 a kayaker was dragged by his head 130 ft from his tent before his companion was able to shoot the bear. Of course, many more bears are killed each year by humans when they are perceived as a threat (AFP 2008). Indeed, it is important not to undermine the very important work illustrating Carl Cater
the unusual nature of any animal attack, despite their use by the media to foment scare stories (Dobson 2008), for example the frenzy following the Egyptian shark attacks in Sharm el Sheikh in December 2010 (BBC 2010).
Land-based visitors to the poles are in the minority due to the difficulties posed by this physical environment. Indeed, one of the earliest polar tourism disasters was the crash of an Air New Zealand DC10 sightseeingflight on 28 November 1979 on the northeast side of Mount Erebus, Antarctica, with the loss of all 257 lives on board. The loss of life here was attributed to bad visibility and consequent pilot error (Reich 1980). Although theseflights resumed in 1994, they are of limited number annually. Instead, the vast majority of visitors to polar regions are
‘ship-borne adventure travellers’ (Stonehouse and Crosbie, 1995), and this proportion is increasing. Of the 36,881 tourists who visited Antarctica in 2009–10 (IAATO 2011), over 99%
were ship-borne visitors, and some 41% were on cruises that did not land their passengers.
However, IAATO has noted the increase in private sailing vessels visiting the continent, many without proper authorisation, where those ‘not sufficiently prepared have encountered diffi-culties, caused damage to the natural environment and important historic sites, or ventured into specially protected areas that are off limits to visitors’ (IAATO 2011: 1). In response, IAATO has launched a yacht education campaign to prepare these visitors more thoroughly.
Antarctic Tour operators typically run short cruises of between 10 and 20 days with perhaps 5–14 of these spent in Antarctic waters. The spectacular scenery and the relative proximity of the Antarctic Peninsula to South America means that the majority of cruises visit this portion of the continent, along with significant island groups in the region such as South Georgia. How-ever, these trips have not been without incident, as in 2007 the MS Explorer, a boutique expedition cruise ship struck an iceberg 500 miles southeast of Ushuaia. Although all 154 pas-sengers were rescued successfully and were taken to bases on King George island, the ship itself sank. In the same year, the MV Alexy Maryshev was on a 10-day sightseeing cruise in the Arctic around Svalbard when a glacier‘calved’ an iceberg, creating large waves and littering the deck of the ship with slabs of ice. Sixteen passengers were injured, several seriously, suffering
Figure 12.1 The MS Explorer sinks off Antarctica in 2007 (Fiona Stewart/Oceans 8 Productions) Impacts of the environment on tourism
variously fractured ribs, clavicle and scapula, shoulder injuries, a fractured skull and life-threatening lung injuries, and are seeking damages from the tour operator (Daily Mail 2010).
Marine hazards
Apart from the injuries sustained on cruise ships detailed above, negative interactions between humans and the marine environment stem from the fact we evolved as land animals. As Cater and Cater suggest, in the oceans‘we cannot survive for very long without specialized equipment, and it is one of the few environments that still contain a significant number of other species that can kill us’ (Cater and Cater 2007: 131). This was poignantly illustrated when American divers Thomas and Eileen Lonergan were accidentally left behind by a dive operator at St Crispin’s Reef in Australia in January 1998. Although there were some theories at the time that their dis-appearance was faked, the coroner determined that, after being left afloat for two days, the couple became dehydrated and disoriented and in the end succumbed to the sea by drowning, or were eaten by sharks (BBC 1998). Indeed, the growing popularity of scuba diving– the Great Barrier Figure 12.2 The four elements of the drowning chain in the marine environment (Surf Lifesaving
Australia) Carl Cater
Reef hosts over one million dives per year (Wilks and Davis 2000) – has brought with it a number of extra environmental dangers. For example, for overseas tourists in Queensland, decompression illness was the second most frequent type of injury requiring hospitalisation, with 69 tourist cases being identified in a 12-month period (Wilks and Davis 2000). Although some marine creatures pose a threat to us, the sea itself poses the greatest threat to human life if not respected. The consistent link between tourist recreation and drowning is illustrated by both its significance in accidental visitor deaths (e.g. from 15% in the USA (Sniezek 1991), to 20% in Australia (Wilks et al. 2002)), and its higher incidence compared with resident groups.
Case study
Surf lifesaving and tourism
Despite the popularity of Australian water activities with international visitors, drowning is the second highest cause of accidental tourist deaths in the country (Wilks et al. 2002), with 140 tourist drownings between 1992 and 2000 (Mackie 1999; Wilks et al. 2002). Many tourist injuries happen in a marine environment that looks familiar, but poses challenges that are different to those at home. In particular the large waves and swell in Australia create rip and sweep currents that are rarely experienced by Europeans or Asians. In Mackie’s (1999) study, 83 per cent of international tourist drownings were European or Asian. The link between international tourists and the higher incidence of getting into difficulty in the marine environment led lifesavers on Australia’s Gold Coast to name two consistent rip currents the ‘English Channel’ and the ‘Orient Express’ to correspond with nationalities of tourists regularly caught in them. Between 1992 and 1997 international tourists made up almost a third of all Australian surf beach drownings (Mackie 1999). Consequently, surf lifesaving organisations in Australia recognise that‘tourists are a target group requiring special attention due to their unfamiliarity with ocean beaches and surfing activities, and in some cases having the additional challenge of poor swimming skills, language barriers, and disorientation in a foreign vacation environment’ (Wilks et al. 2005: 121).
Surf Lifesaving Australia identifies four elements of the drowning chain related to the aquatic environment (Figure 12.2). Water safety at surf beaches has long been increased through the use of patrolled and flagged areas with lifesaving staff on duty. These areas are selected by lifesavers depending on conditions to mark the safest place to swim. Swimmers staying between the patrolflags who find themselves in need of assistance are most likely to be successfully rescued. For example, between 1999 and 2005 there were no beach drownings in Queensland between theflags (Wilks et al. 2007). However, these authors also show that there is an incorrect belief among swimmers that swimming in close proximity to theflags will provide the same levels of benefits if assistance is required.
There were 54 deaths outside of the patrolled zone but within 1 km (70% of total drownings) in the same period (Wilks et al. 2007). Further, many international tourists did not necessarily know what the flags meant, with a 1991 study finding that over 90 per cent of overseas tourists were rescued in rips outside the patrol area and of these, 42% could not swim (Short et al. 1991).
Consequently, surf lifesaving organisations in Australia have implemented education campaigns to make tourists aware of the environmental risks and appropriate behaviour. For example, inter-national airport arrivals are targeted with the message to‘swim between the flags’ in baggage halls.
This has included circulating over 10 million pamphlets with safety information to arriving tourists at the Gold Coast airport since 1988 (Wilks et al. 2007). In particular, ‘identifying those visitor
Impacts of the environment on tourism
groups who are potentially‘at risk’ assists health and tourism authorities to present appropriate safety information in the language of the target group, and to ensure this information is made available to visitors before they leave home’ (Wilks et al. 2002: 555). The national beachsafe website is now available in 32 different languages to cater for different visitors. However, recognising that many beach visitors will still disregard the safety information, lifesaving organisations have also imple-mented strategies to provide broad patrol coverage beyond the flags. These include roving jetski patrols in resort areas to identify swimmers in trouble or take preventative action to prevent drownings arising. As‘Australia is a travel destination that promotes water-related activities, and the water is an unfamiliar environment with a history of injuries and fatalities involving overseas visitors, water safety is a priority area where education and prevention activities must continue’ (Wilks et al.
2002: 555).
In sheer scale, natural disasters have the biggest impact on tourism activity, as they do not discriminate between residents and tourists. In the Boxing Day Tsunami of 2004, 227,898 people were killed or were missing and about 1.7 million people were displaced in 14 countries in South Asia and East Africa (USGS 2005). Of these, over 2,000 were tourists. Of course, the number of tourist dead was dwarfed by the residents of Indonesia and Thailand. Nevertheless, the impacts on tourism were dramatic as it ‘impacted upon coastal tourism destinations in four countries, sweeping away beaches, infrastructure and superstructure, disrupting the services that tourism demands upon and severely depressing demand for affected resorts’ (Cooper et al. 2008: 67).
Tourism’s status as the largest peacetime mass-migration of people, at its peak during the Christmas holiday period, meant that resorts were full, particularly with sun-seeking Scandina-vians, and over 526 Swedish tourists died. Local populations, who depended so heavily on tourism, were those who had to live with the long-term consequences of the tsunami, as tourist numbers to Phuket and the Maldives fell to a third and halved, respectively, in the 6 months following the disaster. Concerns were expressed that it was particularly the informal tourist workers that suffered during the recovery phase (Ashley 2005).
Volcanoes, mountains and rivers
A less devastating, but no less disruptive, example of tectonic impact on tourism came with the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland in April 2010. As the ash cloud from the eruption spread over Europe, and aircraft were grounded for safety fears, global air travel net-works descended into chaos. Tens of thousands of Easter holidaymakers were stranded across the world, surpassing the travel impact of the 9/11 attacks on the USA in 2001 (Lund and Bene-diktsson 2011). Over 300 airports were closed across the continent, more than 100,000flights were cancelled, and airlines’ financial losses reached almost US$2 billion, forcing some into bankruptcy (Calleja-Crespo 2010). This was, of course, neither the first or last incidence of volcanic disruption to travel, as evidenced by the shorter closure of airspace in April 2011 from the Grímsvötn volcano. There is also much earlier evidence from the Laki volcanic eruption in 1783 when British travellers in Naples wrote that,‘the fogs continue, and are accompanied with so alarming an increase of obscurity that our bargemen do not dare venture on the waters without compass’ (The Morning Herald and Advertiser, 9 August 1783, cited in Grattan and Brayshay 1995:
128). In 1980, the eruption of Mount St Helens in rural southern Washington, USA, was responsible for the deaths of 57 backpackers and campers (Diaz 2006). Nevertheless, in a case of any press is good press, since their recent activity Icelandic volcanoes have attracted an estimated 100,000 visitors in a boom of geotourism to the country (Heikkinen 2011).
Carl Cater
The attraction of montane environments as a venue for tourism also has a long history, but once again there are challenging aspects to them that may not always be taken fully into account.
Ironically, two tourists died in 2010 while visiting the Eyjafjallajökull volcano, not from extreme heat, but from hypothermia caused by extreme cold (Heikkinen 2011). Many climbers, skiers and hikers are injured while performing their recreational pursuits in these environments every year, and as more and more people voyage there, the numbers will only further increase. Sev-eral hundred climbers now attempt to climb Mount Everest every year for example (Hales 2007). Despite greater technology and knowledge of this environment,‘an analysis of the death rate on Mount Everest between 1980 and 2002 found it had not changed over the years, with about one death for every 10 successful ascents’ (Sutherland 2006: 452). Although most deaths are put down to injury or exhaustion, Sutherland (2006) suggests that the environment itself is a major contributory factor. A significant number of deaths, and a major reason for admission to base camp medical facilities, are caused by high altitude cerebral oedema (HACE) and high altitude pulmonary oedema (HAPE–commonly lumped together as altitude sickness), which is why these high altitude areas are often called the‘death zone’. However, tourists do not have to be this extreme to suffer the ill effects of the mountain environment, as 77% of trekkers climbing Kilimanjaro in Tanzania suffered from acute mountain sickness (AMS) during their trek, in extreme cases leading to 16 altitude related tourist deaths between 1996 and 2003 (Davies et al. 2009).
These deaths have been partly blamed on the increasing commercialisation of adventure activity, requiring less skills and experience on the part of the tourist participant (Cater 2006). Indeed, the 1990s were particularly bad for tourist fatalities in mountain environments. As interest in pur-suits such as whitewater rafting grew, with regulation and training in its infancy, the perils of this environment became clear. It was suggested that in the 1980s and 1990s approximately one fatality occurred a year in this activity in Queenstown, New Zealand (McLauhan 1995). The highest concentration of these wasfive deaths in an 18-month period in the mid-1990s, which sharply focused attention on safety standards in the industry. In June 1999, four British tourists drowned during a whitewater rafting trip in Austria (The Times 1999). Barely a month later, 21 people, many Australian and New Zealanders on a Kon Tiki tour were killed while canyoning in Switzerland when a torrentialflash flood swept down the valley. The company running the trip, Adventure World, was severely criticised for ignoring storm warnings on the day of the trip (The Guardian 1999).
Desert and tropical environments
The extreme heat of desert environments is also likely to catch some travellers unawares. Aus-tralia, in particular, by virtue of its level of development coupled with extreme distances and high summer temperatures has struggled with tourist injuries in its desert environments. Despite frequent advice to travellers to remain with vehicles when broken down in the outback, many have sought to walk for help and perished in the process. In December 1998 an Austrian tourist, Caroline Grossmueller, and her companion became stranded in soft sand near Lake Eyre in temperatures over 40 degrees. Attempting to walk to the nearest settlement over 50 km away, Grossmueller was found dead with the word‘Help’ scrawled in the red dirt several days later, half way to William Creek (Figure 12.3). Her companion was found alive with their four-wheel drive. Due to the high rate of tourist fatalities in the outback, since 2008 the South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage has closed the Simpson Desert Conservation Park during December and January each year.
Solar exposure is not limited to deserts, as is clear from its central place in the traditional‘Sun, Sand and Sea’ (3S) holiday. It may be that developed countries are sitting on a cancer ‘time-bomb’
resulting from sun damage while on holiday. Statistics show that over the last 25 years, rates of Impacts of the environment on tourism
malignant melanoma in Britain have risen faster than any of the other top ten cancers, and over 2,500 people die from skin cancer every year (Cancer Research UK 2008). Over 90% of these cancers are as a result of sun damage, which is often experienced while on 3S holidays. Cancer charities are alarmed by an increase in‘binge tanning’ for younger tourists who may spend over five hours a day in the sun (Cancer Research UK 2008). The incidence of melanoma, unlike other cancers, is also highest in higher socio-economic groups, further underlining their link to exotic foreign holidays.
Thus, it is clear that to some degree that the relationship between tourists and their envir-onment often results in uncomfortable experiences. In a study of tropical island tourists, Pearce (1981) showed how ‘environmental shock’ symptoms, such as stings, bites and sunburn, increased during the vacation, and by the end of their holiday, more than half of the tourists reported some of these symptoms. In Queensland, Australia, 38 per cent of overseas visitors admitted to hospital were for poisoning and injuries, whereas only 15 per cent of interstate visitors (who are more familiar with the environment) were for these causes (Nicol et al. 1996), again illustrating the link between environmental shock and tourism. In her discussion of how vaccinations help tourist bodies cope with the unfamiliar, Molz illustrates how ‘making the body“global ready” produces the traveller’s body as vulnerable and the world as risky’ (Molz 2006: 10). One of her respondents likened developing country travel to‘center of the world’s Petri dish of killer diseases’ (ibid.: 11). However, this underlines an important consideration, that danger and difference in travel is a fundamental attraction as well as a challenge.
Respect and reconnection
As the democratisation of travel progresses, there is an increasing trend for tourists to turn from expert specialists to novice generalists (Duffus and Dearden 1990). To some extent, then, it is Figure 12.3 The environmental hazards of high temperature (Tiffany Cater)
Carl Cater
likely that the conflicts between humans on holiday and the environments in which they place themselves are only likely to increase. However, it is not the point of this chapter to somehow portray the environment as‘bad’, rather that our awareness of the impacts of various environ-ments on tourists is often lacking, and that this warrants greater attention. Similarly this is not a call for tourists to stay at home, as well-managed tourism can do much to contribute to the future of environments at home and abroad. Eassom contends‘what price a ripe old age in the sterilised bubble, when there is the temptation of adventure on the outside and a short sharp dose of Life?’ (Eassom 1993: 27).
Rather, there are a number of lessons that can be learnt regarding the threat that environ-ments pose to tourists. Awareness of the issue is important as‘it is important that destinations show consideration to environmental threats, as there is undoubtedly a greater contemporary concern from travelling tourists with their safety’ (Wilks et al. 2002: 550). Probably the most crucial for destinations is that of education, for well-informed tourists are more able to adapt to the new environment in which they are placed. This may require preparation on behalf of hosts and tourists, for many of the incidences of tourist fatalities are down to being underprepared, or negligent of consequences. Regulation therefore also has its place in terms of closures or restrictions when there is an obvious danger. Lastly, destinations and the industry are increas-ingly recognising the importance of crisis management in coping with unforeseen environ-mental threats.
Through these strategies it is hoped that we might heal the rift between humans and their environments, and discover a global connection based on mutual respect. Contemporary cir-cumstance requires that this will have to be different to past connections between the two as we have moved a long way beyond traditional societies. As discussed in the introduction of this volume, now ‘issues of tourism and the natural environment are not only localised but trans-cend national boundaries that sometimes require both international and global responses’. Thus, the scale of our connections has to be much broader than before, so depth is a challenge.
However, understanding global environmental threats does assist us with facing the environ-mental challenges of the current era. Indeed it is apparent that many of the tourist pursuits involving a high degree of environmental immersion and challenge also have a high degree of environmental concern (see, for example, Lavoilettes (2010) discussion of how the ethics of cliff jumpers in Cornwall are tied strongly to environmental concerns). All of these issues are con-nected at the end of the day, as perhaps the biggest environmental threats are those that are of our own making. Although their impact may be most obvious to usfirst through tourism, for example the disappearance of low-lying tropical islands such as the Maldives, it is at home that the long-term implications will be felt. It is only through greater respect and reconnection that sustainability can be realised.
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