The assignments determined by the model (i.e., the Yhˆhejs(ip)) are then summa-rized in the matrix Bsje(ip) where an element {bsje(ip)} is equal to 1 if operation s of (ip) is performed at machine j using MH equipment e to transport the part to the next machine, and 0 otherwise. The matrix B provides the necessary information about the assignment of the MH equipment to perform various operations of (ip) so as to enable P(OA) to compute the MH costs in its objective function. At the same time, it reduces the choices of MH equipment in the set Eipsas iterations continue.
The matrix Bsje(ip) forms the feedback link between P(MHSS) and P(OA), thus completing the loop.
The logistics perspective focuses on two aspects. First, it provides protection for the product. Second, it is an instrument for improved distribution efficiency Figure 9.2.
More specially, packaging performs the following functions.
1. Containment: Products must be contained before they can be moved from one place to another to protect them.
2. Apportionment: Make the large output of manufacturing into smaller quantities of greater use to customers. It results in manageable, desirable, and consumer-sized productions.
3. Convenience: Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution, handling, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
4. Information transmission: Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recy-cle, or dispose of a package or product. With pharmaceuticals, food, medical, and chem-ical products, some types of information are required by the governments.
5. Portion control: Partitioning large package or bulk commodity into packages makes for more suitable sizes for individual households and aids inventory controls.
6. Unitization: To unitize primary packages into secondary packages, the secondary packages are unitized into a container that is loaded with several pallets. This decreases the number of times a product must be handled.
7. Physical protection: The package protects the enclosed object from physical items, shock, vibration, compression, and temperature, among other forces.
8. The barrier protection: Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a main function. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages.
9. Security: Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of ship-ment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be Containment Secondary
function Basic
function
Mechanical hazard Chemical
hazard Environmental
hazard Reclosability
Carrying
Dispensing facilities Openability Labeling
Hold product Quality
Compatability
Constraints
Protection and preservation Identification and
information Containment
Functions of packaging
User convenience
Figure 9.2 Functions of packaging[15].
engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage: some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage, and some have pilfered indicating seals. Packages may include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and its contents are not counterfeit. Packages can also include antitheft devices, such as dye packs, radiofre-quency identification (RFID) tags, or electronic article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and that require specialized tools to deac-tivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of loss prevention.
10. Marketing: Encouraging potential customers to prepare the product by means of labels and packages is the exact meaning of marketing function. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and the point-of-sale display.
9.2.4 Packaging Operations
It is clear that a packaging function includes the basic packaging operations of fold-ing, insertfold-ing, wrappfold-ing, sealfold-ing, and labeling. The procedure is as follows. The pack-aging is first folded from its collapsed form and then the product is inserted into the folded package, which is then wrapped with a packaging sheet before it is sealed by tape. Finally, identification labels such as bar codes are either stuck or printed on.
9.2.5 Packaging Equipment
Using the proper packaging equipment is so important in accomplishing the pack-aging functions at lowest possible costs. Equipment for this purpose may be defined as any device or contrivance that assists in the accomplishment of a task [15].
In the broadcast sense, two classes of packaging equipment are employed: first, equipment to fabricate packaging materials and containers; second, equipment employed by the user to utilize packaging materials and containers. Under certain conditions, users may find it economical to incorporate in their operations, com-plete or partial, packaging material or container fabrication equipment. In these instances, users perform the function of packaging suppliers.
Packaging equipment employed by the user is often designed for a specific material or container; as such, it cannot be isolated in the discussion of a particular packaging practice. Therefore, many of the aids utilized in such operations as clo-sure forming, reinforcing, bundling, and easy opening have been in conjunction with a particular material or container type.
For simplicity, packaging equipment is best classified by function. The follow-ing items represent the major functions that can be performed by packagfollow-ing equipment:
1. Forming and assembly
2. Filling, loading, and overwrapping 3. Weighing and counting
4. Closing and sealing
5. Bundling, unitizing, and reinforcing 6. Identifying
7. Miscellaneous
9.2.6 Labeling
After the material is being packaged, it is placed into a box and enclosed by the cover. At this point, it becomes necessary to identify and label the box. Package labeling is any type of communication such as written, electronic, or graphic on the packaging-associated label. Whether words or code numbers are used depends on the nature of the product and its vulnerability to pilferage. Retroflexed labels that can be ready by optical scanners may also be applied.
Labeling of consumer packages and products such as bottles, cans, and folding cartons is frequently an integral part of the filling, packing, closing, and weighing operations. Labels are affixed by specialized high-speed, fully automatic equip-ment, and the principal considerations are machine performance, economy, and appearance[15].
The choice of color and typography in labeling often is very important in cus-tomer acceptance, use, and response. Indeed, the success or failure of a packaged product can be attributed to the manner and style in which it is identified[17].
Labeling Regulations
Many regulations govern the labeling of customer-size packages, including the labeling of weight, specific contents, and instructions for use. Today, many of these must also be placed outside the larger cartons because some retail outlets sell in carton lots, and buyers do not see the consumer packages until they reach home.
For instance, most countries have some laws governing food labeling. These are spread over many reforms and parliamentary acts, making the subject complex.
Nevertheless, the following general laws should be implicit for any food product.1 Name: This must also inform the customer the nature of the product. It may also be nec-essary to attach a description to the product name. However, certain generic names must be used only for their conventional uses—for example, muesli, coffee, and prawns.
Ingredients: All ingredients of the food product must be stated under the heading
“Ingredients” and must be stated in descending order of weight. Moreover, certain ingre-dients such as preservatives must be identified as such by the label “Preservatives,” a spe-cific name (e.g., sodium nitrite), and the corresponding European registration number colloquially known as an E number (e.g., “E250”).
Nutritional information: Although it is not a legal requirement to declare nutritional infor-mation on a product, if the manufacturer makes the claim that the product is “low in sugar,” then it must be supported with nutritional information (normally in tabulated form). However, it is recommended to declare nutritional information because consumers more than ever are investigating this information before making a purchase.
Medical or nutritional claims: Medical and nutritional claims are tightly regulated; some are allowed only under certain conditions and others are not authorized at all. For exam-ple, presenting claims that the food product can treat, prevent or cure diseases, or other
“adverse conditions” are prohibited. Claiming that a food is reduced in fat or rich in vita-mins requires the food to meet compulsory standards and grades; in addition, the terms must be used in the form specified in regulations.
1Refer tohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_labeling_regulations
Storage conditions: If there are any particular storage conditions for the product to main-tain its shelf life, these must be pointed out. However, as a rule it is recommended to always describe the necessary storage conditions for a food product.
Date tagging: There are two types of date tagging:
G A use by date must be followed by a day or month (or both) that the product must be consumed by.
G A best before date is used to indicate when the product’s optimal quality will begin to degrade: this includes when the food becomes stale, begins to taste “off,” or decays, rots, or goes moldy.
Business name and address: In addition to the business name and address, it is necessary to indicate the manufacturer or packager if it is independent of the main business and the seller is established within the European Union.
Place of origin: The food is required to specify its place of origin, especially if the name or trademark is misleading—for example, if a product called “English Brie Cheese” is produced in France.
Instruction for use: This is only necessary if it is not obvious how to use or prepare the product, in which case the consumer’s own initiative must be used.
Presentation: The label must be legible and easy to read. It must also be written in English although the manufacturer may also include other languages.
Lot mark or batch code: It must be possible to identify individual batches with a lot mark or batch code. The code must be prefixed with the letter L if it cannot be distinguished from other codes although the date mark can be used as a lot mark. Manufacturers must bear in mind that the smaller the size of a batch, the smaller the financial consequences in case of a product recall.
Sectioning: All of the following must be in the same field of vision:
G Product name
G Date mark
G Weight
G Quantity
G Alcohol strength (if applicable)
Standard specification: Indicate the level of the product’s standards compliance in manufacturing and packaging.
Bear in mind that there are many other laws and European regulations for differ-ent types of food products.
Labeling Techniques
Label materials: Labels are available in both cut and roll-stock forms. An advan-tage of roll-stock labels is that there is less chance of a wild label occurring in the roll. The rolls can also be easily and automatically inspected offline by a user to double-check the label printer’s own quality control. Both forms generally are made from paper, foil, film, or laminate structure. For special applications, they can also be made from paperboard, fabrics, synthetic substrates, and even metals.
Label-application equipment: The equipment selected for the application of labels is influenced by the type of label backing, the type and size of container to which the label is to be affixed, and production or shipping requirements.
The methods used for various label backing previously recorded are as follows [15].
1. Plain-back labelsare used with high-speed labeling machines when economy is of utmost importance. Spot or lap gluing is accomplished on this equipment with minimum glue consumption. Frequently, portions of shipping documents that run through electronic data-processing equipment later become ungummed shipping labels.
2. Gummed labelsare more expensive than plain labels but require only simple moistening for application. The application of gummed shipping labels is usually a manual operation.
Gummed labels for product identification can be applied with semi- or fully automatic equipment.
3. Pressure-sensitive labels will adhere to nearly any type of smooth surface and do not require moistening or gluing for application. The labels are adhered to a low-release backing paper; removal of the label from the backing sheet can be accomplished manu-ally or by machine.
4. Heat-seal-coated labelsrequire a heating element to activate the thermoplastic adhesive.
Pressure of the label on the desired surface can be accomplished manually or by mechani-cal means.
To compare cut and roll-stock label systems, seeTable 9.1.
9.2.7 Protection Packaging
A protective package should perform the following functions[6]:
1. Enclose the materials, both to protect them and to protect other items from their effects.
2. Restrain them from undesired movements within the container when the container is in transit.
3. Separate the contents to prevent undesired contact, such as through the use of corrugated fiberboard partitions used in the shipment of glassware.
4. Protect the contents from outside vibrations and shocks.
5. Support the weight of identical containers that will be stacked above it as part of the building-blocks concept.
Table 9.1 Comparison of Labeling Systemsa Label Type
Characteristics Plain,
Cut
Heat-Seal, Cut
Plain,