Pasca Perang Dunia I, jumlah emas yang tersedia semakin tidak cukup untuk menyangga perkembangan ekonomi dan volume transaksi di dunia. Tanpa adanya alat tukar yang cukup, perkembangan ekonomi dan perdagangan terhambat. OIeh sebab itu banyak negara berangsur-angsur meninggalkan sistem standar emas penuh dan berusaha “menghemat” penggunaan emas sebagai alat tukar. Sejak itu banyak negara yang menggunakan standar kertas sebagai alat tukar dalam negeri, Standar kertas berarti bahwa uang kertas yang dipegang masyarakat tidak dapat ditukarkan dengan emas pada bank sentral. Namun emas masih tetap
dipergunakan sebagal alat pembayaran bagi transaksi internasional. Emas berperan sebagal devisa.
Bila emas digunakan untuk alat pembayaran luar negeri, tetapi tidak untuk alat pembayaran dalam negeri, kita katakan bahwa negara tersebut menganut sistem devisa emas. Penduduk negara tersebut tidak diperkenankan memegang emas sebagai alat pembayaran (emas untuk perhiasan dan keperluan industri biasanya masih diperkenankan). Emas dimonopoli oleh pemerintah (bank sentral).
Pernbayanan luar negeri dilaksanakan lewat bank sentral, dan dalam kenyataan merupakan tnansaksi pembayaran antara bank sentral suatu negara dengan bank sentral negara lain, bukan antara perorangan.
Sebenarnya selain “ emas” bagi masing-masing uang kertas, bisa pula dihitung kurs pertukaran antara masing-masing uang kertas. Apabila paritas emas untuk rupiah adalah Rp 10.000,— = 1 gram emas, dan untuk yen adalah Y5.000 = 1 gram emas, maka kurs antara rupiah dan yen adalah Rp 2,— = Yl. Tetapi adanya kurs antar uang kertas, mi tidak berarti bahwa rupiah bisa langsung ditukar dengan yen.
Aspek lain yang perlu diperhatikan mengenai sistem devisa emas ini adalah bahwa kita harus membedakan antara cadangan devisa (emas) suatu negara dan jumlah uang (kertas) yang beredar. Dengan lain perkataan, tidak ada lagi hubungan langsung dan otomatis antara posisi pembayaran internasional suatu negara dengan stok uang dalam negerinya.
Selama bank sentral memperbolehkan penduduk untuk secara bebas “membeli” atau “menjual” emas dalam ktannya dengan transaksi luar negeri dengan paritas emas tertentu, maka posisi neraca pembayaran langsung mempengaruhi stok uang (kertas) dalam negeni. seperti dalam sistem standan emas penuh. Namun dalam praktek, sering kali bank sentral (karena berbagai alasan, misalnya pengendalian inflasi, pencegahan pelarian dana ke luar negeri) memberikan berbagai bentuk pembatasan kepada penduduk yang melakukan transaksi dengan luar negeri.
Dalam keadaan ini, hubungan antara posisi devisanya dengan stok uang dalam negeri menjadi tidak langsung dan tidak otomatis. Perlu pula diingat bahwa dalam stan- dan kertas, stok uang dalam negeri justru sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor lain, seperti keputusan pemerintah mengenai berapa banyak mencetak uang baru dan juga oleh kegiatan bank dalam penciptaan kredit. Posisi pembayaran luar negeri hanya salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi stok uang yang beredar di dalam negeri.
The economics of international business and Economics MATERIAL I : an INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS I
Lecturer : Bayu Pramutoko, SE, MM
Short description: an International business courses to introduce the notion of international business at once gives a description of all sorts of business
transactions and operasionalisasi between two or more countries, with includes both activities between Governments and private companies.
Part I Introduction
Some parts of economics are always lively and controversial is the study of trade and international finance. Many of the rules are a staple in the modern economic analyses that appear in the eighteenth century and nineteenth debating
international monetary and trade policies. But the unprecedented international economic studies where being in such important as nowadays. Thanks to
international trade, whether in goods or services, and international financial traffic led to the economy each country is now becoming more and more closely related to each other compared to previous periods.
At the same time the more volatile world economy, a phenomenon unheard of in decades past. Coupled with changes in the international environment (international environment), international economics the more major concern, both in corporate strategy as well as national economic policy.
Whether it's international economics?
International economic analysis methods using the same base as used by branches of other economics, because the motives and behaviour of individuals and
companies in the international commercial exactly the same as we find in the domestic trade transactions (local).
International economic analysis methods using the same base as used by branches of other economics, because the motives and behaviour of individuals and
companies in the international commercial exactly the same as we find in the domestic trade transactions (local).
First, "economic relations" could be in the form of an exchange of the results or output of one country with another. For example, Indonesia exports oil, timber, rubber, handicrafts, sell Garuda flight transport and tourism services to foreigners, and to import rice, grain, iron ore, plastics, yarn, sea transport and air transport and tourism services (e.g., package tour for the people of Indonesia to Singapore, Hong Kong, and so on). Such relationships are known as trade relations. Note that the definition of "output" output includes "goods" and "services" output.
Second, economic relations can be shaped or Exchange the flow of means of production (or factors of production). Included in the Group of the means of
production is labor, capital, entrepreneurship and teknoogi. Means of production can "flow" from one country to another for a variety of reasons, for example because the rewards are higher, because through foreign assistance programs, and because of the "fear factor" (e.g. * threats of war, fear, fear of the existence of a nationalized devaluation or inflation because it avoids a too high in a country). The means of production "land" is the only means of production that is not able to flow to other countries, because of its nature bound to the location. But even "" land "is not absolutely tied to its location, when we remember that the definition of the means of production" land "includes natural resources contained therein.
We export nickel ore, copper ore and other mining items. Here we can question whether this export goods more "factor of production" or "output". But this is
something debatable: a sense of nickel ore or copper ore can be seen as output, but in terms of the other could be considered as a factor of production. Instead, labor or "humans" that are substantially more car and not tied to location, often become a factor of production that could not (or not always could) flow from one country to another.
The rules of immigration restrictions between countries is often so tight so that it is not possible for human beings to freely move to another country. Yet there are still examples that describe this flow of factors of production, such as labor delivery to Saudi Arabia Indonesia, Malaysia to work on construction projects or in other places there.
Currently, most car or easily move beyond the State border are factors of
production capital (along with technology and entrepreneurship that follow). Capital, in the form of foreign investment or aid/loans abroad, pouring in large numbers from one country to another, both among developed countries themselves or between developed countries with developing countries.
That is not less important is the flow of funds between countries that are not politically motivated or aimed at investment in the form of the establishment of factories, but aimed at speculative and short term in nature. So, for example, in the early 1970s the Fund in amounts large enough to have been flowing from Singapore and elsewhere abroad to Indonesia and then stored on the banks in the form of time deposit which at the time was giving a very high interest rate. Because of its nature speculative and short term, we could debate whether this kind of Fund flow is a flow of factors of production or not.
But even cases that are vague like this do exist, generally is still important and useful bags we are to distinguish between factors of production flow and other branches, for example the flow of output, because each stream has different consequences for a country.
The third form of the economic relations need to be clearly distinguished, because even though all three closely to each other, but they do not always evolve in line. For example, there is a possibility of a country experiencing relationship
per-profitable merchandise (for example experienced a surplus of exports over imports), but at the same time experiencing the relationship factor production or credit
relationships that are less profitable. (Here seen that a country's international economic relations must be assessed in its totality, i.e. to be seen from all three facets, and can not just give priority to one, for example, trade relations, and ignore the other). In addition, as already mentioned above, each form of economic
relations have different consequences on the economy in the country, so that the flow of the third distinction we need to do.
Part II
1. Issues in an international economics
Aspects and problems are studied by international economics regarding the third form of the economic relations? Many aspects and problems are examined by this science, but here we mention some examples of aspects and issues studied by major field of study:
(a) The pattern of trade. Why a country has export and import patterns patterns in particular? What factors affected it? For example, why precisely Indonesia export petroleum, wood, textiles, handicrafts, and imported rice, machinery, iron ore and so on? What determines trade patterns like this?
(b) Export and import prices. How is the price of export goods and imported goods prices determined? What factors determined? For example, why the price of
petroleum and industrial results of the goods increases more rapidly than the price of the products of the farm such as rubber, tea, pepper?
(c) The benefits of trade. What are the benefits of the presence of foreign economic relations to a country? What is the influence of the economic ties against national well-being? Whether the profit and loss statement of the presence of foreign economic relations in terms of production, consumption, income distribution and economic development in General?
(d) The influence of the macro. What is the influence of trade relations and
monetary macro circumstances against domestically? For example, if exports rise, whether the result of that. against price level in the country, GDP, the amount of money in circulation and so on?
(e) The mechanism of the balance of payments. How does the process of
adjustment of the balance of payments of a country in the event of changes in the economic situation (for example, the increase in the price of export) or when a certain wisdom implemented (for example, the devaluation)?
(f) The politics of foreign trade. What is the benefit of the wisdom of the incoming customs tariff imposition, banning imports, quotas, subsidies, export taxes and so on for the national economy and for the world economy?
(g) The trade Alliance. What is the result of the holding of a trade Guild, such as Joint Market of Europe and (more limited) ASEAN? What is the advantages and disadvantages for each of the Member States? (h) Foreign capital. What is the benefit of foreign investment and foreign aid? The form of capital investment and aid that how lucrative and how adversely the recipient countries? Are there any actions that could be taken by the Government to avoid or reduce its negative consequences?
(i) The transfer of technology. How does the process of the transfer of technology from one country to another? Is there a loss-a loss that needs to be avoided in this process? What wisdom can streamline the process of transfer of such technology? A list of these problems is not to your satisfaction. But, it could gives an overview to the reader how the breadth and importance of issues covered by the areas of international economics.
If at any time You find American-made Television in one of the electronic shop in Indonesia, which is the order of events to this American-made Televisions sold people in Indonesia are not much different from the process of bringing wooden Cupboards artificial teak Pasuruan, Kediri, given to the city mileage of both
processes are almost the same. However, international economics includes other interests and different, because international trade and investment took place among free Nations. American Television shipments could be disrupted if the Government of Indonesia set quotas that restrict imports; American television can suddenly the cheap in the eyes of the people of Indonesia if the American currency exchange rate US $ to fall against the Indonesia Rupiah. This event is not likely to happen within the territory of Indonesia itself, because the laws and regulations of the country of INDONESIA is not the same with other countries. And each country has its own characteristics in applying trade policy of the society.