Chapter II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.5. Speech
Grecian, the community who firstly considered the importance of speech, viewed speech as not only to deliver message, idea, desire, hope, and education from one person to another, one community to another but also to construct an art (Anjali. 2006: 22). In accordance to this, they also used a speech to share and overcome a problem toward a member of society (Keraf. 2006: 2). Finally they figured out and developed the rhetoric knowledge as the broader sense of the art of speaking. People gradually redefine the knowledge of rhetoric as speech, preach, oration, or presentation. No matter what the reason, this knowledge is necessarily needed in some professions such as; lawyer, politician, religious teacher, statesman, businessmen (Anjali. 2006: 28).
Harold J. Lasswell in his book of The Structure and Functional of Communication in Society as quoted by Anjali (2006: 23) who had
formulated the formula of communication who says why in which channel to whom with what effect has listed 5 components of communication;
communicator (sender, source), message, media (channel), communicant (receiver, recipient), effect (impact, influence). In accordance to those components, Leech (1991: 13-14) listed some considerations on speech situation below;
a. Addresser and addressee
In explaining the nature of communication, some linguists may use the term sender and receiver, addresser and addressee, writer and reader, and speaker and hearer. Basically, all these items have similar meaning, but the use of each item refers to the relevant context. The point is that the former deals
with the person who sends or shares information whereas the later tends to be the person who receives and being shared the information.
b. The context of utterance
The context can simply be meant relevant aspect of psychical or social setting of a communicative event. The context of an utterance is considered to be the background knowledge that contributes to the sender s intention in producing an utterance and the receiver s interpretation of an utterance.
Keraf (2006: 11) gave an additional argument concerning to the aspect of context or situation that by considering the external factors, the speech can be optimally presented.
c. The goals of an utterance
The goal of an utterance deals with the sender s purposes in uttering it. This goal can also be meant an intended meaning of an utterance which might be intentionally or unintentionally proposed.
d. The utterance as a form of an act
Being proposed in this research of Bush s speech that such utterances may possibly consist of actions. In some cases, the speaker does not realize that she or he leads or invites some acts while uttering. In fact, verbal language possibly involves an act much more than written language.
e. The utterance as a product of verbal act
To achieve a mutual understanding in communication and also to support those Leech s considerations, Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren has clearly listed 8 principles of speech; Aesthetic, effectiveness,
uniqueness and authenticity, accuracy, creativity, ethic, logical, and truth (Anjali. 2006: 45).
Another important consideration in speech is diction (Keraf. 2006: 23-24). Diction is not a simple thing since it has to cover an intention of the speaker, be appropriate to the context, and fulfill the social and cultural requirement where the speaker delivers his speech.
From that reason, the speaker should be able to use
denotation-connotation expression, synonymous word, affixation, idiomatic expression, etc. appropriately (Keraf. 2006:88-89).
In accordance to the consideration of speech, language style should also be briefly taken into account. The use of language style refers to a matter of word, phrase, clause, and sentence choice, discourse consideration, and even suprasegmental units (stress, intonation). The researcher does not discuss the whole topic of language style since it is not the main scope of the research. The subtopic of direct and indirect meaning in the study of
language style becomes a consideration in analyzing Bush s speeches. The use of denotative usually does not lead to semantically word change while connotative or any other styles possibly make any changes in word meaning (Keraf. 2006: 129).
In the matter of direct and indirect meaning, a language style is divided into rhetoric and figurative. Rhetoric consists of alliteration, assonance, anastrophe, apophasis, apostrophe, asyndeton, polisydenton, chiasmus, ellipsis, euphemism, litotes, hysteron proton, pleonasm, periphrasis,
prolepsis, rhetorical question, solipsism, correction, hyperbole, paradox, and
oxymoron. In other hand, figurative stands for simile, metaphor, allegory, personification, allusion, eponym, epithet, synecdoche, metonymic, antonomasia, hypalase, irony, satire, innuendo, antiphrasis, and paronomasia.
By referring to these styles, the researcher can look over the speaker s way in delivering speech, whether the message is delivered directly or indirectly.
In investigating a speech, the researcher lists some types of speech in order to be able to analyze the object of study. According to Rakhmat (2006:
17-19), based on the way the speech is delivered, speech is classified into impromptu, manuscript, memorizer, and extemporary. The speech is considered to be impromptu if there is no preparation before delivering speech. Let us say, when someone is in the party and asked to deliver speech directly. Manuscript refers to the speech with the complete text. In other word, it refers to reading a text of speech. Memorizer is a kind of speech in which the speaker memorizes the content of speech. Extemporary is
considered as the best type of speech because the speaker develops what will be delivered by himself based on his outline.
By referring to the objective of the speaker, Rakhmat (2006: 89-125) classifies speech into;
1. Informative speech. It is oriented to deliver o share information to enable the listener to know, understand, and receive what is informed.
Ehninger, Monroe, and Bronbeck figured out 3 types of informative speech; oral report (annual report, project report, governmental report),
oral instruction (speech containing instruction from teacher to student, leader to official, director to secretary), and informative lecture (lecture, preach, paper presentation).
2. Persuasive speech. It is oriented to convince, control, or attract listener s attention. Campaign speech and preach are two of examples of
persuasive speech.
3. Re-creative speech. It is not oriented to inform something or influence listeners but to attract, enliven, and give an interlude.
Discussing speech also means the organization of message, since speech becomes a part of delivering message or idea. Still, Rakhmat (2006:
35-36) described briefly the 6 forms in organizing message; deductive (the turn of the main idea to facts or supporting idea), inductive (the turn of facts or supporting idea to the main idea), chronological (based on time
sequence), logical (based on the order of cause to effect or from effect to cause), spatial (based on the order of place), and topical (the order of specific topic).