heart disease, among others. (A free vitamin fact sheet is available at pknewby.com.)
The ability to dissolve in water impacts how vitamins are metabolized. Water- soluble vitamins are easily absorbed in our aqueous bodies, and, while tiny amounts are stored temporarily, excesses are excreted in urine. Fat- soluble vitamins are, as their name implies, best absorbed in the presence of fat. (It’s this prin-ciple of nutritional biochemistry that explains why you’ll want to keep that yummy full- fat vinaigrette on your salad: the oils in the dressing will help your body absorb the fat- soluble vitamins from your vegetables.) Fat- soluble vitamins can build up in our adipose tissue (body fat). In rare cases, such as people with extremely high vitamin supplement intakes, levels of fat- soluble vitamins can be-come toxic and even fatal.
Billions globally suffer from severe vitamin deficiencies (Chapter 2), but, with some exceptions, most of those living in food- abundant areas have intakes that prevent frank deficiencies— par-ticularly due to food fortification efforts. Whether consumption of specific vitamins is adequate for “optimal” health, whether athletic performance, cognition, or disease prevention, is a more difficult question to answer, and research is ongoing.
What’s the deal with vitamin D?
Those who follow nutrition news may have noticed vitamin D is the “it” vitamin. It is found in limited food sources naturally (like fatty fish), so milk and other foods are fortified in many places to prevent deficiencies like rickets, a bone disease. The “sunshine vi-tamin” is primarily synthesized in the skin when ultraviolet B rays (UVB) react with the hormone 7- dehydrocholesterol; humans with darker skin have more melanin, which impedes vitamin D produc-tion. Research has demonstrated that humans in northern climes have significantly lower concentrations of vitamin D in their blood compared to southern- clime dwellers. Concentrations also vary within region due to lifestyle differences (e.g., use of sunscreen, time outdoors) that compromise sunlight exposure.
Vitamin D plays diverse roles in the body, in part by regulating calcium and phosphorus, both of which play a key role in bone and
dental health. Yet newer hypotheses regarding the role of vitamin D in chronic diseases like cancer, obesity, and type 2 diabetes mel-litus (T2DM) suggest that lower blood concentrations may lead to higher risks, though research is not conclusive. While some scientists claim an epidemic of vitamin D deficiency may be contributing to the burden of chronic disease, there is not yet a clear consensus on optimal blood concentrations of vitamin D, though many experts be-lieve that individuals should delay sunscreen application to enable vitamin D production or take high- dose supplements. More will be discovered about vitamin D in coming years pending completion of ongoing clinical trials.
How do you know whether your vitamin intake is adequate? Should you take a supplement?
In food- abundant environments, micronutrient needs are often met by consuming a balanced and varied diet (Chapter 17). Nonetheless, a 2015 Scientific Report from the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) indicates a number of micronutrient imbalances among Americans: vi-tamin A, viAmericans: vi-tamin D, viAmericans: vi-tamin E, folate, viAmericans: vi-tamin C, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and fiber were underconsumed across all groups; sodium was overconsumed; and iron was underconsumed by adolescent, pre-menopausal, and pregnant females. Other data suggest that vitamins B6 and B12 were low in older adults. With so many micronutrients to consider in so many different circumstances, isn’t it easier to take a multivitamin or mineral supplement as part of your daily routine?
While intuitively appealing— and a source of billions for the sup-plement industry— studies showing consistently positive health benefits to daily multivitamin/ multimineral consumption have been disappointing. This is likely due to many factors: those taking supplements are often already generally healthy; supplement quality varies widely in the market; and chemical forms differ in their absorption and bioactivity, hence efficacy. For example, over- the- counter supplements may be synthesized at dangerously high doses or at ineffectively low doses or adulterated with inert or toxic chemicals due to the insufficient regulatory environment in some countries— including the US, where the 1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) allows manufacturers to
circumvent the lengthy scrutiny and approval process required by other drugs. While many consider a supplement a form of “die-tary insurance,” it’s best to aim to meet your micronutrient needs from food, which tend to carry fewer risks and greater benefits.
Specific clinical or other needs requiring supplementation should be considered in conjunction with a nutrition professional as part of an overall health strategy.
What roles do salt and other minerals play in our diet, and should you watch your sodium intake? What is the DASH diet?
Minerals are inorganic substances that enter our food supply, hence our bodies, through the soil in which plants grow (or via animals that eat the plants). The mineral content of the same crop can therefore differ somewhat by geography and climate. There are seven macrominerals (calcium, chloride, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur) and nine trace minerals (aka, microminerals: chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manga-nese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc), so named because of the quantities needed for health.
Like vitamins, minerals play an array of roles in the body. For example, chromium and glucose support metabolism; magne-sium, sodium, and potassium regulate blood pressure; and fluoride improves dental health. Life- threatening mineral deficiencies are rare in high- income countries but serious health problems in low- and middle- income countries (Chapter 2). As with vitamin research, many mineral studies today focus not just on deficiencies but on roles in chronic disease prevention as well as athletic performance.
Knowledge in these areas will continue to grow. (A free mineral fact sheet is available at pknewby.com.)
Sodium plays a vital role in fluid balance, which regulates blood pressure, as well as in muscle contractions and nerve impulses.
While most people use the word “sodium” interchangeably with
“salt,” sodium is actually only one component of table salt, which is a combination of sodium and chloride. (There are other salts, for example, like potassium chloride.) Research is convincing that high intakes of sodium increase blood pressure and hypertension, risk factors for heart disease and stroke. Modest salt reduction for
at least four weeks leads to reduced blood pressure, as shown in a systematic review and meta- analysis of 34 RCTs and many in-dividual studies. People vary in their sensitivity to salt, however, which explains why sodium intake doesn’t always correlate with blood pressure; hypertension has strong genetic components independent of diet, and obesity is also a strong risk factor.
Monitoring blood pressure regularly is critical: hypertension is a “silent killer” that can be controlled with medication if unre-sponsive to diet and other lifestyle changes. For these reasons, individuals should limit their sodium intake to less than 5000 mg per day according to the World Health Organization (WHO) (<2300 mg is the US recommendation). A sprinkle or two of salt in cooking or at the table is not the culprit, however; cutting back on high- sodium processed foods (Chapter 4) is the key.
Because sodium does not act alone in regulating blood pressure, studies have also examined the roles of minerals like magnesium, potassium, and calcium, suggesting that the ratio of these minerals is key to blood pressure control, not just sodium. The overall diet is also important. The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) research team has been examining the role of nutrition in blood pressure reduction for decades through a series of RCTs comparing those consuming a typical Western- style (American) diet with those who either just increased fruits and vegetables or followed the DASH diet. The DASH eating plan includes an array of plant- based foods (vegetables, fruits, whole grains, beans, legumes) plus low- fat dairy, lean protein, and vegetable oils and limits saturated fat and foods high in sugar. Those adding fruits and vegetables to a typ-ical American diet showed reductions in blood pressure as well as low-density lipoprotein (“bad”) cholesterol (LDL) compared to those consuming a typical American diet, but those following the DASH diet showed the greatest reductions. The DASH diet combined with reduced sodium (3000 versus 2300 or 1500 mg/ day) showed increas-ingly greater blood pressure reduction with the lower sodium intakes.
The DASH diet has also been shown to be effective for weight loss (Chapter 17). Beyond the original DASH RCTs, numerous observa-tional studies, meta- analyses, and systematic reviews have found a consistently protective effect of the DASH diet on blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk factors, as well as heart disease and stroke.
What are phytochemicals?
Phytochemicals are organic compounds (i.e., contain carbon) found across the plant kingdom— phyto refers to plants in Greek— including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, tea, cocoa, and coffee. The words “phytochemical” and “phytonutrient” are used interchange-ably in nutrition. Approximately 100 000 phytochemicals have been characterized, and doubtless many more will be discovered.
Phytochemicals provide protection for plants, whether as brightly colored pigments that fight predators or as colorless chemicals that act as antioxidants to boost immunity. It’s little wonder they have beneficial effects in humans given their importance in plant health: “You are what you eat,” as the saying goes. Because there are so many, phytonutrients are often categorized by chemical structure or biological activity. Four major groups are discussed below.
Carotenoids are usually red, orange, yellow, or green and include a number of different chemicals that can be converted into vitamin A in the body (“pro- vitamin A” beta- carotene, alpha- carotene, beta- cryptoxanthin) and those that cannot (lycopene, lutein, zeaxan-thin). Some studies have shown associations between carotenoids and decreased heart disease and certain cancers, likely due to their antioxidant activity. Lycopene (found in tomatoes, especially when cooked) is related to lower risk of prostate cancer, and beta- carotene (found in carrots and other orange and yellow veggies) may be as-sociated with decreased lung cancer in nonsmokers. Lutein and ze-axanthin seem to protect against age- related macular degeneration and cataracts, serious eye diseases that compromise sight in older adults. Carotenoids are fat- soluble and must be consumed with fat in order to be absorbed; excess carotenoids are stored in the subcu-taneous fat under the skin, so if you munch carrots excessively, your skin may take on an orange hue. (Seriously.)
Polyphenols are the largest group of phytochemicals across the food supply, and include flavonoids and nonflavonoids (referring to the chemical structure). Bioactive roles in the body differ, but most impact nutrient metabolism and absorption. Some current poly-phenol research efforts include catechins in tea; quercetin in onions;
flavonones in citrus; resveratrol, a flavonol, in red grape skins, wine, and peanuts; anthocyanins in apples; and ellagic acid in berries and pomegranates. High intakes of a wide range of colorful polyphenols
may promote longevity due to antioxidant and anti- inflammatory effects.
Phytoestrogens are named because of their estrogen- like effects on the body, though some have additional health impacts. They are colorless or white, and major types include isoflavones and lignans, found in tofu and other soy foods and flax and sesame seeds, re-spectively (Chapter 11). Decades of research has investigated their association with hormone- related processes like the development of breast cancer and osteoporosis. Results on the role of isoflavones in reproductive cancers have been mixed, although foods rich in phytoestrogens have long been part of the traditional diet in Okinawa, Japan, whose inhabitants are among the longest- lived populations in the world (Chapter 17).
Glucosinolates are sulfur- containing compounds responsible for the bitter and spicy flavors of some cruciferous vegetables (e.g., kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, radish) and leafy greens (e.g., collards, mustard, horseradish, wasabi, aru-gula). They are metabolized into isothiocyanates and indoles, which have also been related to a lower risk of colorectal and other cancers due to their role in hormone metabolism, among other functions.
Although rare, high doses of glucosinolates can disturb thyroid function; adequate iodine intake generally prevents ill outcomes, though, and most people should consume more glucosinolate- rich foods, not fewer.
Do carotenoids prevent cancer?
Carotenoids have received considerable attention in laboratory and animal models, later leading to observational studies in humans and then clinical trials. (This is a natural progression of etiologic research necessary for establishing cause and effect.) It was hypothesized in the 1990s that high- dose supplementation may prevent lung cancer given the protective role of carotenoid- rich vegetables and fruits.
Contrary to hypothesized, carotenoids provided in RCTs actually led to more deaths. The interpretation of findings is complicated as the studies were conducted among those at high risk of lung cancer, like smokers (who may have had preclinical disease, for in-stance) and the dose was incredibly high. Still, some concluded that
studies like these following a reductionist approach (i.e., picking out individual dietary elements from their complex, multinutrient food packages) are inherently limited given the many different bio-active and synergistic components in food. In other words, studies showing a health benefit of consuming carotenoid- rich foods like vegetables and fruits don’t always neatly extrapolate to a protective effect based on high doses of just one of their phytochemicals, like beta- carotene. There may be other phytochemicals, nutrients, or as yet to be discovered components in veggies and fruits responsible for the cancer- reducing effect. Studies like these laid the ground-work for a paradigm shift in nutrition, with some scientists calling for a more holistic view of diet that better reflects the biochemical complexity of food— not to mention how people actually eat (i.e., meals, not nutrients) (Chapter 17).