CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND TRENDS IN EDUCATION
2.2 OVERSEAS AND AUSTRALIAN TRENDS IN EDUCATION
2.2.5 Teachers and Quality - Some Overseas Trends
The continuing recognition of the dependence of educational outcomes on teacher quality is now often accompanied by serious community disquiet about the performance of teachers and, on the part of teachers themselves, increasing dissatisfaction with their lot. Across the world there is a focus on the need for measures to improve the quality of teachers and teaching. There is concern about teacher recruitment and selection, teaćher preparation, appraisal of teacher performance, the professional development of practising teachers and the raising of teacher status and morale.
2.2.5.1 Recruitment and Selection
In most countries there are problems in recruiting high calibre teacher trainees because of competition with other professions and with industrial and commercial firms. Although much is often made of the importance of teachers' salaries, there are many surveys which indicate high ratings for other factors unrelated to monetary reward. Many argue that teaching will continue to attract sufficient good quality applications if conditions for service are congenial, if teaching is regarded by the community as worthwhile and if there are reasonable prospects for personal satisfaction.
What cannot be ignored is the fact that low pay tends to lead to low status. Unfortunately there are too many teachers in each country for them to gain the status possessed by elite groups such as doctors and lawyers. In such a situation there is growing recognition that the main appeal to candidates for teaching should be based
on
the overall attractiveness of teaching as a career.There is recognition also that candidates should be selected not only on the basis of good academic qualifications but also with desirable attitudes and personality traits. There is a counter argument that there is a problem in validly assessing at the individual level personality and attitudes, that it is better to ensure that the pre-service program builds necessary attitudes, and that, in any case, there is no particular personality type that makes for good quality teaching. There is some evidence that teachers with good academic qualifications tend to have
a
positive effect on student learning but the correlation is not remarkably high. The research seems to indicate that successful teaching depends more on characteristics such as empathy with students, patience and persistence.2.2.5.2 Teacher Preparation
Initial teacher preparation in most countries has been criticised in recent years for low academic standards and lack of relevance to classroom practice. Teacher education finds itself between the two worlds of higher education and the school. It is urged simultaneously to be more academic and to be more practical.
Many observers view this conflict in a slightly different way and contrast initial training courses which prepare students for an entire career in teaching with those which might offer a survival kit for the first few months or year backed up by continuing guidance.
Whatever the balance between the "general educational" and "practical training" elements in courses of teacher preparation, there is general acceptance of the view that pre-service teacher education is part of a larger picture of initial training, induction to teaching, on- going professional development and opportunities for taking additional qualifications.
Many consider that the main problem with pre-service teacher education is that there are simply too much information and too many skills to be acquired in the time available. In this situation pre-service education can only be seen as the first stage of professional preparation, not the whole of it.
2.2.5.3 Appraisal of Teacher Performance
In some OECD countries an increased attention to the appraisal of teachers has focused on action to identify and remove incompetent teachers. Many countries are adopting a more positive approach than this and see the primary purpose of teacher appraisal to be the professional development of teachers.
In using teacher appraisal for professional development, education systems are tending to use a four stage process: preliminary discussion, classroom observation, post-observation discussion and finally, an agreed plan for future professional development. There is increasing recognition of the need to build a climate of trust between the teacher and the appraiser and of the value of involving teachers in the development of appraisal schemes.
In some countries such as France and Belgium, inspectors continue to play a large part in the appraisal of teachers but there is an increasing general trend for principals and senior teachers to assume this responsibility. Effective appraisal of teachers requires careful training and some systems are mounting special courses not only for principals and other appraisers, but sometimes also for teachers about to undergo appraisal.
A continuing problem with teacher appraisal
is
the definition of teacher competence.Determining teacher "competence" or "talent" is difficult and there are many varying models of what constitutes a "good" teacher. Testing instruments developed in the United States for assessing teacher competence have not proved very successful. Appraisal through observation by a supervisor or inspector still displays clear advantages. This is particularly so when there is
a
stress on "formative" appraisal for professional development. In some countries "summative" appraisal for purposes such as promotion still involves the inspector but there are increasing arguments for the process to be informed by procedures such as the sampling of performance over time and the use of assessment panels containing the teacher's peers.2.2.5.4 Professional Educational Development of Teachers
Most countries maintain a period of induction or probation following a pre-service course.
Practice varies considerably. In some countries refresher courses are maintained by training institutions, in others inspectors have a special role in oversighting the work of probationary teachers. In some countries supervision is quite minimal.
There appears everywhere a new enthusiasm for continuing in-service education, although this is not always matched by the deployment of resources. There are calls for in-service education to be provided on a more uniform basis to all teachers; for in-service to follow a systematic sequence; and for in-service to offer a clear advantage to the teacher and the school.
In the United States there has been a general shift of focus from pre-service education to the continuing professional development of the teacher. There are calls for in-service education to be more school-focused, relevant to the classroom and collaboratively planned and implemented •(43)
School-focused in-service education is receiving similar attention in the United Kingdom.(46) An OECD review found agreement among education systems on the importance of teachers continuing their personal and professional education, on the need to continually review teaching methods and curricula in the light of economic and technological change and on increased attention to in-service education .04n There are signs in some countries that mandatory in-service is being considered but the general approach appears to be to see in-service education as a professional right and duty with a strong expectation that teachers will undertake it voluntarily.
2.2.5.5 Teacher Status and Morale
As discussed in earlier pages there has been a growing trend everywhere for teachers to assume additional welfare and health responsibilities and to be responsible for all aspects of the child's development. Somewhat ironically at a time when teaching has become more complex and difficult, teachers are being criticised more and respected less.
Although concern is being expressed about the multiplicity of roles for teachers there appears to be little progress in more clearly defining the role specifications for teaching or in delimiting role expectations. Not all commentators on this point see the additional responsibilities as necessarily negative. It has been argued that teachers could see these as possibilities for extending their professional role provided they are treated as professionals and ways are found of showing teachers that they enjoy public confidence .() Current trends in some systems to see teacher appraisal as part of the process of professional development should assist in building teacher professionalism.