1) What is Science?
Science:
• A specific & standardised process of collecting information & answering questions
• It minimises bias & error, but does not eradicate it
• Relies upon observable data to test out theories The Scientific Method
1) Theory (research questions)
2) Hypothesis/Collecting Data (experiments) 3) Analyse the Data (checking the results)
4) Interpret the Results (conclusion of whether to retain or reject the hypothesis) 5) Update/Refine the Theory
• Reject = update theory & change hypothesis
• Retain = continue to generate additional hypotheses from the theory to test 6) Testing New Ideas
What is a Theory?
Theory: set of principles that explains and predict certain phenomena
• Subject to testing, modification, and refutation as new evidence emerges
• To be accepted, a theory must be well-substantiated (multiple observations supporting it)
• E.g. Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)
• Young infants are intrinsically motivated to be attached to their primary caregiver/s
• Predictions about how infants will behave in the presence of their caregiver/s
• Well-substantiated – multiple experiments and observations supporting the theory in various species (monkeys & humans)
What is a Hypothesis?
Hypothesis: a clear statement derived from the prediction of a theory that can be tested, replicated & falsified
• It is a prediction in a specific direction
• It is measurable (i.e. observable)
• It is replicable (another person can conduct the exact same experiment elsewhere)
• It is falsifiable (it is possible for the hypothesis to be shown to be false) Main Types of Experiments
• True experiment; Correlational study; Quasi-experimental study; Case study Note: the fewer participants in a study = the less valid our study findings become.
The less likely the findings are representative of what might be observed in the ‘real world’.
What is a True Experiment?
True Experiments: test hypotheses that are based on the theory and previous results
• IV: variable that the experimenter manipulates to examine its impact on the DV o Needs a control variable (no manipulation)
§ A control variable allows us to infer causation (ensure that any outcome is specifically due to the manipulated variable)
• DV: measured outcome of a study
• Random selection of participants
Operationalising Variables: how you define & measure a concept
• Concrete concepts (e.g. height) = easy to operationalise
• Abstract concepts (e.g. love) = difficult to operationalise
• E.g. Sternberger Triangular Love Scale
o Love = operationalised as comprising three separate concepts (Intimacy, Passion and Commitment)
o Here we can see that operationalisation can be driven largely by theory – this theory suggests that love is multifaceted
What is a Correlational Study?
Correlational Studies: try to show a relationship (or correlation) between two variables
• Only have DVs (measure these variables to see if they are correlated)
• Only measuring & recording data – not manipulating anything Potential Outcomes:
• Perfect positive correlation: means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a second event (almost never observed in research settings)
• Zero correlation: no relationship (often observed in research settings)
• Positive Correlation: as one variable increases, the other variable increases.
• Negative Correlation: as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.
Remember:
• Correlation does not equal causation
• Perhaps a third variable influences the correlation
• We need to conduct a true experiment to determine whether A à B What is a Quasi-Experimental Study?
• Cannot do a true experiment for ethical or practical reasons, so select subjects based on a pre-existing condition
o E.g. depression (unethical to give someone this), identical twin studies
• Still involve random allocation to conditions as much as possible (but not random selection)
• To control for the loss of random selection, measure potential confounding variables (e.g. age, sex, intelligence, socio-economic status, health)
What is a Single Case Study?
Single Case Studies: investigate one individual case and write a report on it
• Advantages:
o A lot of information
o Information is often both qualitative and quantitative
§ Quantitative (observable and measurable)
§ Qualitative (not easily quantified – e.g. personal experience)
• Disadvantages:
o Is it representative or just a one off finding?
o Considered less scientific (not relying upon sound statistical principles) What Factors Result in Poor Science Being Conducted?
• Poor validity (the extent to which a concept is well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real world)
• Not enough constants in the experiment (factors that are same between groups) o E.g. Does studying impact on exam performance? Need to manipulate study,
but keep sleeping, eating, exercise, cheating, etc. the same between groups.
• Inappropriate control group (group that has no manipulation)
o Without a control group, you are not truly manipulating anything and cannot answer your research question
• Bias (a subjective opinion about something that influences you respond to it)
§ Personal bias: researcher attempts to manipulate the outcome in a way which suits their bias.
§ Measurement bias: a measurement process that systematically overstates or understates the true value of the measurement.
§ Sampling bias: where a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others.
o Bias makes data inaccurate/non-representative of the real world 2) What is Clinical Psychology?
Psychology: the systematic study of the brain, mind and behaviour.
What is the Mind?
• The mind is the hypothetical place where we engage in mental process
• Psychologists infer mental processes from behaviour What is the Brain?
• The brain is the physical seat of the mind. It enables mental processes to occur.
• In psychology, brain and mind are thought of as inseparable but distinct.
• E.g. Morris Water Maze
o Rats learn to find hidden platform in pool (after a few trials) o Rats need hippocampus to learn where this platform is located (if
hippocampus is deactivated, rats cannot remember where platform is) What is Behaviour?
• Behaviour is the observable things which an organism does
• Psychologists infer mental processes from behaviour
• E.g. Pigeon Operant Chamber
o Researchers use this tool to infer a pigeon’s motivational state
• E.g. Six basic emotions (infer mood states from facial expression) What about Nature and Nurture?
• A complex interaction of nature/nurture influences what we do/think/feel
