ACER Newsletter No. 48 July 1983

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ACER Newsletter

No. 48 July 1983

Published by The Australian Council for Educational Research Limited Radford House, Frederick Street, Hawthorn

Victoria 3122.

i1il~ltlf

(03) 818 1271

Edited by Peter Jeffery 10044948

Social Area Indicators of Educational Need

Ken Ross

In recent times the concept of 'equality' has become a central issue in debates concerning the provision and distribution of resources in education. However, the goal of equality of educational opportunity has often not been treated as a goal in itself but rather as a means for obtaining certain long-range social goals. This instrumen- talist interpretation appears to have emerged from the view that, in modern society, education has been seen as the social distributor of life chances. Rather than taking direct action to rearrange life chances, governments in western countries have generally opted to use the education system as an indirect and politically more defensible means of achieving social reforms.

The Karmel Report in Australia examined several approaches to the identification of schools for participation in the Disadvan- taged Schools Program - subjective assessment based on information obtained from informed persons within Australian school systems, and objective assessment based on the construction of indicators from census data. The former approach was rejected because there would have been a lack of intersystem comparability in the information obtained from each school system. The initial 1973 national indicator, derived from a range of census data describing occupations, ethnicity, education, family characteristics, religion, and housing, was intended to identify 'schools drawing a high proportion of enrolments from neighbourhoods having certain characteristics known to be generally associated with a low capacity to take advantage of educational facilities'. More recently the 1980 national indicator has only been used to divide funds between school systems which have then employed their own indicators to allocate funds to schools.

In the United States and the United Kingdom, educational researchers have criticized the level of accuracy with which resources, allocated on the basis of indicators, have reached those students who were in most need of assistance. There appear to have been no research studies which have examined systematically the precision with which resources allocated through the Australian Disadvantaged Schools Program have reached their 'tar- gets'.

The main aim of the Social Area Indi- cators of Educational Need study was to develop, validate, and describe the proper- ties of a national indicator of educational need. It was expected that this indicator would provide a useful tool for guiding deci- sions concerning resource allocation to educationally disadvantaged schools in Australia.

The data employed in this study were drawn from two sources: data describing a wide range of student characteristics (literacy and numeracy test scores, home background information, teacher ratings of classroom behaviour, etc.) which were collected from national samples of six thousand 10-year-old and six thousand 14-year- old students, and census data describing the characteristics of the Census Collec- tor's District in which each of the sample members lived. These two large bodies of data were linked and then aggregated over schools in order to provide data files which would be suitable for a between-schools analysis. The resulting data files, of around 250 schools at each age level, provided a highly detailed profile of the neighbourhood surrounding each school (based on census data) linked with a comprehensive descript- ion of each school's 'output' (based on the means of the student characteristics data).

The national indicator of educational need was constructed by using the technique of stepwise multiple regression to obtain a weighted combination of school neighbourhood characteristics which was optimally correlated with school mean achievement scores on a test of word

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The indicator was subjected to a wide range of analyses which were designed to provide a detailed investigation of its pro- perties. It was established that this indicator displayed a number of highly desirable attributes which included the following: (i) strongly correlated with school mean achievement and school behavioural climate; (ii) able to maintain correlational associations with school mean achievement scores when applied to different samples of schools and students; (iii) suitable for application to schools in general - irrespective of school system or location, and (iv) displayed acceptable levels of accuracy when used to identify those students who were most in need of assistance with basic learning skills.

Further multivariate analyses were carried out in order to discern the nature of the residential differentiation associated with Australian school neighbourhoods. It was demonstrated that at least three dimensions were associated with differences in the social characteristics of these neighbourhoods: socioeconomic status, familism, and ethnicity.

The national indicator of educational disadvantage exhibited a complex over- lapping pattern of association with respect to these three dimensions. This pattern tended to be dominated by the socioeconomic status dimension - but not to the extent that it was possible to ignore the other two dimensions. Low scores on the indicator presented a picture of the 'social landscape' surrounding the educationally disadvantaged school as one in which there were:

• high concentrations of persons in the economically and socially vulnerable position of having low levels of educational attainment and low levels of oc- cupational skill;

• low concentrations of persons living ac-

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cording to a popular 'model' of Aus- tralian family life characterized by single family households, stable families and marriages, and separate dwellings;

• high concentrations of persons likely to have English language communication difficulties because they were born in non-English-speaking countries.

An important theoretical contribution of this study was to develop the Accuracy and Leakage coefficients. These coefficients permitted objective assessment to be made of the precision with which sup- plementary educational resources have been delivered to those students who were in most need of assistance. In this study the 'need for assistance' was put in operation as low scores on tests of basic numeracy and literacy skills. However, the application of the concepts of Accuracy and Leakage could be readily extended to other operational interpretations, provided that suitable data were available. These two coefficients, therefore, offer an important avenue for avoiding the dangers of approaches to indicator construction which have relied upon appeals to the face validity of component variables that have been aggregated to the school level or above. In sociological terms, they provide a means of minimizing errors which are associated with 'ecological' and/or 'individualistic' fallacies which may occur when it is assumed that a particular indicator will re- tain the same correlational associations with other important variables across different levels of analysis.

301 BK $15.00

Philanthropic Trusts in Australia (4th Edition)

The initial preparation of a publication on trusts and foundations in Australia was undertaken by the Australian Council for Educational Research in conjunction with the Myer Foundation, and the first edition was published in 1968. The Association of Australian Philanthropic Trusts was form- ed in 1977 to establish closer communication between organizations distributing philanthropic funds, and this Association has collaborated with the ACER to produce the third edition in 1980, and the fourth edition in 1983 of this directory.

The aim of the Association of Australian Philanthropic Trusts is to increase the value of philanthropy to the community and to at- tempt to ensure that areas of need in the community - whether in health, welfare, education, the arts, the environment, or research in medicine, science, or social science - are neither overlooked nor over- supported.

In 1968, 226 trusts were listed and the approximate annual disbursements of the 187 trusts that disclosed their grants ex- ceeded $24 million. The total disbursement of funds available to Australians - through the trusts that have supplied their current figures - amounts to almost $40 million dollars for private trusts, and more than

$76 million for trusts which receive government support as well as gifts and tax con- tributions.

Continued page 6

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Test Development at the ACER: A Historical Perspective

Marion M. de Lemos

ACER's role in the development and distribution of educational and psychological tests goes back to the early 1930s. When the ACER was established in 1930, standardized tests were being widely used and developed in the United States and in England. One of the first major projects undertaken by the ACER was the development and norming of a series of arithmetic tests at the primary level. These tests were developed in 1931 and normed on a sample of approximately 40 000 children drawn from 700 schools throughout Australia. A second major test development project on primary school reading was started in 1931, and these tests were normed in 1933 on a sample of over 30 000 children drawn from over 400 schools. The third major test development project involved the development of a non-verbal test of general ability. This test was normed in 1936 on a similarly large sample, together with a widely usfd United States test of verbal ability - the Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability.

This early work at the ACER on the development and norming of tests of achievement and general ability had a major influence on the acceptance and use of standardized tests in Australia. In 1938' the ACER was approached by the NSW Department of Public Instruction and asked to prepare a test of general ability for use at the sixth-grade level. A series of such tests was developed during the next few years, which led eventually to the development in 1949 of the ACER Intermediate Test D, which became one of the most widely used of the ACER tests of general ability.

During World War II the ACER became involved in a number of testing activities related to the war effort. Tests of general intelligence, mechanical comprehension, clerical ability, and non-verbal ability were developed for the selection and placement of army recruits. A series of aptitude tests were also developed for munition and air- craft trainees and for post-war rehabilita- tion programs.

This emphasis on testing in the ACER's program continued into the immediate post-war period. The construction of tests for the NSW Department of Education continued, and work was undertaken on the development of higher level tests for the NSW Public Service Board. In 1945 a separate test division was set up and work continued on the development and stan- dardization of a number of tests, including verbal and non-verbal tests of general ability at the junior and intermediate levels and tests of achievement in reading, English usage, spelling, and arithmetic, and various specific aptitude tests for vocational guid- ance and personnel selection. Several norming programs took place. during the late 1940s and early 1950s, and the reintro- duction of national service provided an opportunity to norm a number of adult level

tests on samples of national service trainees.

This early work was carried out mainly by staff seconded to the ACER from the various state education departments, and therefore reflected the needs and interests of the various States. A number of the early ACER researchers later became prominent in Australian education, either in state education departments or in university positions, and continued to maintain strong links with the ACER. Such people included Wood, Verco, Rayner, Spearritt, Keats, Bradshaw, and Dunn.

During the 1960s the emphasis in

ACER's testing program shifted towards

the development of special purpose tests or testing programs, such as the NSW Basic Skills Testing Program, the Com- monwealth Secondary Scholarships Ex- amination, the Tertiary Education Entrance Project, and later the Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test. By the 1970s there was a clear recognition of the need to update and renorm a whole range of ACER tests, and several test norming programs were undertaken, involving mainly mathematics, language, and reading tests. In the mid-1970s a program for the revision and renorming of ACER's range of general ability tests was commenced. Work was begun on the revision of the ACER higher and advanced tests in 1976, and parallel forms for these tests were developed. The data for these tests was collected in 1978. The revision and the renorming of the Intermediate level tests were commenced in 1980, and revised ver- sions together with new manuals were published in 1982. At the same time the adaptation and Australian norming of current United States tests were undertaken - Intermediate Form R of the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test in 1980 and currently the adaptation and norming of the Advanc- ed Form R of the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test and the Differential Aptitude Tests.

The ACER has made considerable effort in recent years to up-date and renorm its standardized educational and psychological tests. However, much remains to be done. Work needs to continue not only on the revision and renorming of old tests, but also on the development of new tests, the adaptation and Australian norming of overseas tests, and the collection of adequate validity data on both Australian and overseas tests stocked by the ACER.

At the same time it is necessary to recognize that attitudes to standardized testing have changed in the 50 years since the ACER started work in this area. Quest- ions regarding the usefulness and validity of standardized tests have been raised. The whole concept of standardized testing has come under attack from some quarters, particularly in relation to the use of standardized tests of general ability. There are many issues which need to be discussed and debated, and misunderstandings relat- ing to the use of standardized tests that need to be clarified. Confusion has often arisen through lack of clear definition of terms such as validity, bias, dis- crimination and fairness, which are often used in different senses by dif- ferent groups of people. This has led to confusion and misunderstanding.

ACER Newsletter No. 48, July, 1983

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The question of validity is perhaps the most central issue in the debate. Validity is generally thought of in terms of the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. Various types of validity are usually distinguished: content validity, criterion validity, concurrent validity, and construct validity. In a more general sense, validity can be considered in terms of the extent to which scientifically valuable or practically useful inferences can be drawn from test scores. In this sense validity is related to the purpose for which a test is constructed, and the validity of the test depends on the extent to which it serves this purpose.

In the case of achievement tests, the validity of the test is generally related to content validity. The test is valid to the extent that the items of the test cover the area of knowledge or skill that the test is designed to measure. Content validity is usually established on the basis of the judgment of experts in the area which the test is designed to cover.

In the case of general ability and specific aptitude tests, the validity of the test is usually related to criterion or concurrent validity - that is, the extent to which the scores on the test are able to predict per- formance or behaviour in some other specified situation, or the extent to which the scores correlate with scores on some other measure which is known to be related to the criterion behaviour or the criterion measure. These types of validity are most relevant in the case of tests which are applied for some practical purpose; for exam- ple, to select from a number of applicants those who are most likely to succeed in a particular job or a particular course of study or training. These are the practical situations in which tests of general ability and specific aptitudes are most common- ly applied.

Construct validity is important from the theoretical or scientific point of view, since this is the type of validity that is concerned with what the test measures or purports to measure. This type of validity is of concern when a test is designed to measure some underlying trait, and when we wish to draw inferences as to the nature of this underlying trait or to make specific predict- ions based on a particular theory or a particular model involving this underlying trait.

From this it can be seen that test validity takes many forms, and the type of validity that is relevant to a particular test depends on the nature and purpose of the test.

In the case of intelligence or general ability tests, the question of validity has tended to become confused with the issue of whether intelligence is determined by innate or environmental factors. It is often argued that intelligence tests are invalid because they are dependent on culturally determined knowledge and skills. How- ever, intelligence or general ability tests are not designed as measures of innate ability, nor is it theoretically possible (at least at this stage of our knowledge) to obtain a measure of innate intelligence.

This is because the development of intelligence is based on an interaction between genetic and environmental factors, and it is not possible in the case of any in-

dividual to determine the extent of which the achieved level of functioning is determined by either genetic or environmental factors. The general ability test is designed as a measure of the achieved level of functioning, and it is this achieved level of functioning which is relevant to the particular purposes for which intelligence tests are designed, and on which predictive and concurrent validity is based.

The question of the extent to which per- formance on tests of achievement or general ability is related to the particular cultural or environmental background of the individual is also related to the issue of bias. It is often claimed that tests are biased against certain groups in'the community (particularly children from lower-class and non-English-speaking backgrounds) because these children have had less opportunity to learn or to become familiar with the particular types of knowledge or skill tested, or because they are handicapped by poor language skills or poor vocabulary knowledge. In this sense tests are said to be unfair, or to discriminate against particular groups in the community. This is a complex issue and involves a number of different kinds of question. It is also an issue where different uses of the same term have created confusion and misunderstanding.

The term 'bias' and 'discrimination' can be used in either a statistical sense or a general sense. In a statistical sense, bias refers to systematic underestimation or overestimation of a particular population parameter. In psychometrics, bias refers to systematic errors in the predictive validity or the construct validity of test scores that are associated with group membership. Bias is related not only to cultural differences, but can be related to other types of group membership such as race, social class, nationality, sex, and age. There are specific statistical procedures for determin- ing whether or not a test is biased in the statistical sense of the term. Bias in this sense cannot be determined on the basis of subjective judgments as to the content of the test, or on evidence that there are differences between groups in perform- ance on the test, or on the grounds that a particular test was standardized on a particular population and is therefore biased when used for any other population. Statis- tical bias is concerned essentially with the question of whether a particular test or item within the test is equally valid for individuals from different groups in terms of predictive validity and in terms of construct validity.

The term 'discrimination', when used in a general sense, means to treat people unfairly or differently because of their group membership. However, in a statistical sense, discrimination means simply that there is a reliable or statistically significant difference between individuals or between groups on some particular measure. There is no implication of fairness or unfairness in this use of the term. A test discriminates between younger and older children if there is a significant difference between the scores of the younger and older children.

A test item discriminates between high scorers and low scorers if there is a significant correlation between the test item and total score on the test.

In a statistical sense, therefore, the terms 'discrimination' and 'bias' have nothing to do with fairness or unfairness.

The concept of fairness or unfairness relates to the way in which tests or test scores are used. Biased tests can be used fairly, and unbiased tests can be used unfairly. The question of whether tests or test scores are used fairly or unfairly is a moral or ethical question, related to the particular situation or context, and a particular philo- sophical or ideological point of view. There will no doubt be legitimate differences of opinion as to whether tests should or should not be used in a particular way, or whether or not a particular use of tests is fair or unfair. The essential point js that the fairness or unfairness is related to the use of the test or the test scores, and is not inherent in the test itself.

There is adequate evidence as to the validity and usefulness of standardized tests for a range of different purposes, and it is likely that standardized tests will continue to be widely used. It is however important to guard against the misuse of tests and the misinterpretation of test scores.

This is an area in which the ACER has had and will continue to have an important role to play.

Adventures in Uncertainty

Mark Wilson

In the social sciences the use of srs (sim- ple random sample) formulas on data from complex samples is now the most frequent source of gross mistakes in the construct- ion of confidence statements and tests of hypotheses.

This statement by Lesley Kish in 1957 is as true today in educational research as it was when he wrote it over 25 years ago. When an educational research worker conducts a survey, it is almost always carried out in the administratively simple form of a clustered (and possibly weighted and stratified) sample of schools or classes and teachers or students within those schools and classes. If the analysis of the data collected in this way is confined to means and differences between means, then the sampling variability, which is crucial to in- ference and to complete understanding of the results, may be found using formulae available in standard texts. However, once the research worker attempts to use more sophisticated statistical procedures, the standard formulae are found to apply only to simple random sampling. In the past, researchers have applied these erroneous standard formulae and hopefully handled the results with suspicion. Previous studies have shown this suspicion to be well found- ed. The search for a solution to this problem has thrown up several approximate and intuitive techniques for estimating sampling errors given just one sample as evidence. It was the purpose of this study to investigate the accuracy of one technique that uses the Taylor's series approx- imation for the assessment of sampling errors in an educational research setting.

Adventures in Uncertainty examines the

Continued page 6

3

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Read About

Research on Curriculum

1980's Titles Available from ACER

CURRICULUM STYLE AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Kevin Piper (ACER, 1983)

This study investigates current practices in the teaching of English language in the junior secondary school and develops a classification of curriculum style based on current practice. It concludes that, contrary to popular belief, traditional methods are alive, if not entirely well, in the junior secondary school. The ideas that have revolutionized English language curriculum development in the past decade do not appear to have sparked a similar revolution in school practice. The report raises important issues for all those concerned with improving the effectiveness of English language teaching.

... 293 BK $8.50

A CORE CURRICULUM FOR THE COMMON SCHOOL

Malcolm Skilbeck (University of London, 1983)

In this book, the idea of core curriculum is examined in relation to areas of knowledge and experience, learning processes, and learning environments. It is presented not as an alternative to school-based curriculum development, but as a major component of a comprehensive strategy of school curriculum renewal. ... 292BK $2.80

BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND AUSTRALIAN SCHOOLS

John Mills (ACER, 1982)

A survey of research and practice in the field of bilingual education in Australia and overseas. Provides an up-to- date commentary on the history and current status of bilingual education programs of all types, in each Aus- tralian state and territory. By means of a review of the various types and styles of bilingual programs which are possible, and those which are at present being con- ducted in overseas countries with high migrant popula- tions (USA; Federal Republic of Germany; Sweden), in- sight is given into the Australian programs for migrants and for Aborigines ... 198BK $8.00

EDUCATION, CHANGE AND SOCIETY

Edited by Peter Karmel (ACER 1981)

The relationship between changes in the education system and changes in the wider society is an area of major importance. This importance is heightened when, as is currently the case, modern societies experience unusually rapid economic, political and social change.

This publication examines the relationship between educational and social change, and suggests appropriate modifications in the structure and function of education.

Papers in one section discuss the implications of societal change for educational research and the curriculum. The publication comprises more than 20 papers from prominent Australian and overseas scholars, representatives of major education interest groups, and the six State Institutes of Educational Research .

... 049 BK (soft cover) $12.50, ... 050 BK (hard cover) $20.00

THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM

M. Hewitson (1982)

This book presents an analysis of the nature, extent, and impact of the hidden curriculum of schooling at three levels of operation: the societal level, the school level, the classroom level. The author draws on a wide-ranging literature to provide a thought-provoking, extensively referenced discussion of considerable importance for educators ... 202BK $3.00

ORACY IN AUSTRALIAN SCHOOLS

S. F. Bourke, D. F. Davis, M. L. Clark and F. Holzer (ACER, 1981)

The monograph considers the nature and significance of oracy and details the place of oracy in the intended curricula of Australian schools. Teacher opinion of the importance of many listening and speaking tasks is reported and a model is described for assessing some of the important tasks. Finally an assessment program is described, and the results obtained by 10-year-old and 14-year-old students are reported ... 115BK $11.00

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Curriculum Style and English Language 293BK $8.50

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Education, Change and Society 049BK $12.50

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A Core Curriculum for the Common School 292BK $2.80

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^Education, Change and Society 050BK $20.00

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Bilingual Education and Australian Schools 198BK $8.00

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Gracy in Australian Schools 115BK $11.00

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... subscriptions to "Australian Education Index"

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. d tion Index is an The Australian E ~ea. formation system .

Australian educat~~i:seminates infoyrr_iat1on which collects an \'an education. It ,s in all areas of Austra Id four times

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compiled a~d prod~ncJ Information Services the ACER Li?rary I 3000 documents are Unit. Approximate

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wide range ^O . eluding monograp s, unpublished form~~~ference papers, research repo_rts, state-of-the art reviews, periodical articles,_ of books and bibliographies, reviews

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resources, . . ted in the widest 'Education' ,s mt~rpre ""'rned with all d . f rmat1on con,... . sense an m o of education, teaching, areas and all_ le~els d Broad subiect and training ,s mc~uie the service are: educa·

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Bibliography of Education

Theses in Australia·

A List of Theses · Ed . • Higher De re tn uc~t,on Accepted for Colleges

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Australian Universities and Margaret A. Findlay and Penny Martin The findings of higher d

storehouse of valuable kegre7 studies present a education comm . now edge for the However these s~u~~y and further r~search.

through the usual ch:s

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rarely d1ss_eminated published theses de n~e s ~nd remain as un- lege libraries. This

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university or col- the first of a new series ~s. mgs of theses is theses for degrees at bo~~ includes 276 levels, accepted in' 1980 L'bma~ter and doctoral chers in the education . ' ranans and resear- to a central, permanen/reas now have ~c~ess graphical list which wiii ~nt complete b1bl10- subsequent volumes It she ept up I~ date by . degree candidates in. ou_ld save time for individual institutions s~na:cd~~9 the holdings of help to avoid duplicatio ' _,on, the list can and be the m f n, provide new ideas

eans or po·

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future research: for ex ,n mg the w_ay for areas which are curren~~p~e,_ by designating the identifying the approach emg explored; by

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~ional res~arch .ictiv/11~~g infor':la~ion on addi- mclude details of title h: ~escnpt,ons of theses awarding institution a~ ,g er degree, and abstract. The volume well as l_he author's dex to the theses. also contains a subject in- Future annual · .

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Australian Independent Schools Yesterday Today and Tomorrow

(Australian Education Review No. 19)

R. Selby Smith

Like other educational institutions in this country, the independent schools of Aus- tralia have undergone considerable change, particularly during the past decade. This review examines how far these schools, based as they have been on clear- ly expressed ideals and philosophies, have been able to adapt their programs and their role in Australian society so that they may be as appropriate today as they were in times past. Are these schools finding it dif- ficult to serve contemporary society effect- ively or will their basic concepts and ideals maintain their truth and validity in the midst of a rapidly changing society? In seeking answers to such questions, this review con- centrates on the period since 1950.

The origin of the major independent schools was influenced by the background of the founders - the schools and universities in England, Scotland, and I re land where they were educated, their particular religious denominations, and the need for boarding schools for children whose families lived too far from day schools.

After 100 years without government assistance, in 1964 the independent schools received their first grants from the Com- monwealth Government - first for im- proved science facilities and later for other school buildings, particularly libraries. Sub- sequently grants for recurrent expenditure came from the States as well as from the Commonwealth Government.

Initially heads of independent schools

were seriously concerned that these new programs might lead to considerable government control. However the evidence available in Australia, in contrast to other

6

countries, shows that this has not been the case. Because of this financial support, the independent schools have been able not only to contain their fees during periods of inflation but also to undertake new programs and raise the level of their facilities, to improve the quality of their teaching staff, and to make significant changes to their curricular and extracurricular activities. These include the development of music, art, and drama within the schools. Many schools have been able to increase the provision of scholarships and financial support for families in hardship.

Will the present prosperity and popularity of these schools continue? The attitude of governments is likely to be a key factor.

The consensus of governments on the question of state aid, which has been a marked feature of the Australian educational scene for the past 15 years, is now in doubt. The main likely effect of any reduction in assistance would be to force the schools .to raise their fees. This would further restrict the number of families who could afford to send their children to these schools and would reduce the number of

full and part scholarships funded from fee

income. Thus these schools would be even less accessible to those of limited means.

The more rigorous application of the prin- ciple of need will raise significant questions for the independent schools, which must be considered by all concerned with the ad- ministration of education in Australia as well as by all involved in the provision of education within independent schools.

300 BK $8.00

Adventures in Uncertainty (Cont.) accuracy of this technique, the Woodruff- Causey technique, which was chosen for study because of its relevance and usefulness in the calculation of sampling errors. A guide to the use of the technique and to writing the relevant sub-routines is included in the microfiche appendixes to the monograph.

The Woodruff-Causey technique, when used cautiously, was shown to give stable estimates for the errors in large samples that are encountered in educational research data. It has the advantages of

ACER Publications

Books

relatively high computational speed and transparency of assumptions. It also hand- somely repays the demands it makes on the skills of the researcher, with the marked flexibility it displays in handling diverse sampling situations, for estimating the sampling errors of almost any statistic im- aginable and in its adaptability to quite small computer installations. The results presented have, however, indicated the need for further evaluation of the technique in situations where smaller numbers of cases are involved, especially for stratified weighted sample designs.

Adventures in Uncertainty offers an ef- ficient and effective solution to the most persistent problem that is met in this field.

303 BK $6.00

Ph.ilanthropic Trusts (Cont.)

Each organization which administers a trust listed in Philanthropic Trusts in Aus- tralia was asked to supply the address, history, functions, publications, and disbursements of the particular fund. Not every organization supplied all this information.

The introductory pages of the publication include instructions for preparing an application for a grant, and a classified list of trusts to assist users to identify all those trusts in a particular field of interest.

Following the entries for the trusts, there is a list of references to Australian and overseas publications and a list of trusts with their principal offices outside Australia.

The alphabetical index lists trusts under their full names and additional entries have been made for parts of some names. The subject index contains entries for specific subjects as well as names of scholarships and organizations used in the text but not appearing in the names of the trusts.

By providing information about the many trusts in existence, this publication will assist applicants to channel applications to appropriate trusts, and foundations to distribute money to recipients and thus contribute to advances in human welfare and knowledge.

122 BK $13.50

Curriculum Style and English Language by Kevin Piper. .. .................... $8.50 Social Area Indicators of Educational Need by Kenneth N. Ross .............. $15.00 The Context of Teaching and Learning by Adrian Fordham .... .... ... .. ....... $8.00 Bibliography of Education Theses in Australia compiled and edited by Margaret A. Findlay and Penny Martin..... . ... ... .. ... $13.00 Australian Independent Schools Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow by R. Selby-Smith (Australian Education Review No. 19)... .. .. $8.00 Philanthropic Trusts in Australia Fourth Edition .... .. ......................... $13.50

Tests (For full details see the catalogue)

ACER Advanced Test AL-AQ (second edition) and BL-BQ Specimen set ...... $11.90 ACER Higher Test Form WL-WQ Specimen set......... .. .. $8.80 ACER Advanced Test B40 (Revised) Specimen set...... ......... ...14.80 ACER Mathematics Profile Series - Review Test Specimen set ........... $6.40 ACER Test of Cognitive Ability Specimen set ...... $5.10 ACER Review and Progress Tests in Mathematics (RAPD Specimen sets in Addition $9.00, Subtraction $9.00, Multiplication $10.00, Division $11.00