Australian Archaeology - CORE

Archived at Flinders University: dspace.flinders.edu.au

Full Citation Details:

Hallam, S.J. 1977. Recent Archaeological Research in Western

Australia. 'Australian Archaeology', no.6, 13-27

Other

A c t i v i t i e s

J. A l l e n completed t h e e d i t i n g o f volume 3 i n t h e departmental series T e r m A u s t r c Z i s , which i s a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f a PM t h e s i s on t r a d i t i o n a l t r a d e i n t h e New Guinea h i g h l a n d s w r i t t e n i n t h e Departrwnt o f Human Geography, Ftesearch School o f P a c i f i c S t u d i e s , by 'I. Hughes now o f t h e M U ' S Human Sciences Program, School of General S t u d i e s . A l l e n a l s o continued with t h e e d i t i n g of t h e Sweatmn j o u r n a l and, w i t h Golson and J o n e s , undertook t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e p a p e r s from t h e Sunda and Sahui symposium o r g a n i s e d by the Department f o r t h e 1 3 t h P a c i f i c S c i e n c e Congress i n Vancouver l a s t y e a r .

J. Golson (Aciapted from t h e d e p a r t m e n t ' s 1976 annual r e p o r t . )

RECENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH I N WESTERN A U S T R A L I A

General Investigations

1. D e v i l ' S L a i r

Dortch and M e r r i l e e s have continued t h e i r D e v i l ' s L a i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w i t h a s i x t h f i e l d season i n A p r i l 1976 during which t h e y r e c o v e r e d bone and s t o n e a r t e f a c t s from l a y e r s w e l l below t h a t now d a t e d i n e x c e s s of 31,000 y e a r s ago ( p e r s o n a l

c o x n u n i c a t i o n , C. Dortch). The s t o n e m a t e r i a l w a s mainly limestone, b u t i n c l u d e d two quartz p i e c e s . These lower l a y e r s d i f f e r e d from t h o s e encountered h i g h e r i n t h e d e p o s i t i n t h a t they no longer r e p r e s e n t e d u n d i s t u r b e d occupation l e v e l s , b u t appeared t o have a component o f s e c o n d a r i l y d e r i v e d m a t e r i a l . I t is n o t y e t p o s s i b l e t o make unequivocal s t a t e m e n t s about t h e fauna1 a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t h i s c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l .

The human h i p bone w i t h a d a t e of about 12,000 BP recovered i n 1975 (Dortch 1975) h a s now been d e s c r i b e d by Allbrook (1976) as comprising t h e major part o f the r i g h t h a l f of t h e p e l v i s o f a mature, p r o b a b l y male, i n d i v i d u a l . Its recovery from a h e a r t h n e a r t!!e s i d e of t h e cave r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s of i t s r o l e i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n a s i t e which has yielde-d a l s o a p e r p l e x i n g narrow p i t , b a r e l y wide enough t o h o l d a (Dortch and M e r r i l e e s 1973), and two d e t a c h e d c e n t r a l i n c i s o r s (Davies 1968; Davies 1973).

Freedman (1976) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e f i n d i n g of a t h i r d i n c i s o r , t h i s time an w p e r l a t e r a l deciduous i n c i s o r from an i n d i v i d u a l probably o n l y &out e i g h t y e a r s o l d , would throw doubt on t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s m a t e r i a l as denoting i n i t i a t i o n r i t u a l s .

T h i s l a t e s t t o o t h i s about 19,000 y e a r s o l d , w h i l e t h e p r e v i o u s deciduous specimen (Davies 1973) w a s almost a s a n c i e n t , p r o b a b l y about 17,000 BP, and t h e permanent i n c i s o r f i r s t found, l i k e t h e hip-bone, probably belonged t o t h e l a s t s t a g e s o f t h e cave ^{' S} use, around 12,000 BP.

The a c t i v i t i e s denoted by f l a t p i e c e s o f l i m e s t o n e , p o s s i b l y from the cave r o o f , b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s c r a t c h e s (Dortch 1976) have a s i m i l a r l y wide span o f d a t e , from about 20,000 y e a r s ago

(Plaque B3652, 20,400

+

^{1000 bp, SUA} 32) t o around 12,000

(Plaque B3651, 12,000 bp, b r a c k e t t e d by 118960 f 140 bp, SUA 102 and 12,050 f 140 bp, SUA 1 0 3 ) . Ochre, a p r o b a b l e bone pendant

(Dortch and M e r r i l e e s 1973) and two bone beads i n d i c a t e p r o b a b l e self-ornamentation o v e r t h i s same time-span. L i k e Koonalda, (Sharpe, C.E. and K.J. 1976) D e v i l ' s L a i r now e v i d e n c e s symbolic a c t i v i t i e s w e l l back i n t o t h e Late P l e i s t o c e n e . I n my o p i n i o n t h e two deciduous t e e t h do n o t comprise a s u f f i c i e n t argMlent f o r r e j e c t i n g t h e

l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e e n t i r e D e v i l ' s L a i r sequence stems from i n t e r m i t t e n t s e q u e s t r a t i o n o f youths and E n i n a r i t u a l / s y m b o l i c r a t h e r than mundane domestic c o n t e x t . I f such a c t i v i t i e s c o n t i n u e d over days 0.r weeks r a t h e r than hours, even t h o s e engaged i n "men' S

business" must e a t ; and h e a r t h s can i n d i c a t e f i r e s lit f o r o t h e r than domestic, o r n o t only domestic, purposes.

Whether domestic o r s a c r e d , D e v i l ' s Lair remains one o f t h e l o n g e s t and e a r l i e s t sequences i n A u s t r a l i a . Of overwhelming

s i g n i f i c a n c e i s t h e v a s t q u a n t i t y of bone m a t e r i a l from t h e sequence of d e p o s i t s , far exceeding the a r t e f a c t u a l c o n t e n t , and t h e

o p p o r t u n i t y which this o f f e r s f o r d e r i v i n g an i n s i g h t i n t o

environmental c o n d i t i o n s and t h e i r changes o v e r time. The h e r c u l e a n t a s k of a n a l y s i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l c o n t i n u e s under D r Merrilees in t h e Department o f Palaeontology o f t h e Western A u s t r a l i a n Museum, A g r a n t from t h e A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f A b o r i g i n a l S t u d i e s i s e n a b l i n g Miss Balm t o work f u l l t i m e d u r i n g 1976-7 on t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e Devil's L a i r fauna1 remains, and t h e problem of t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s e r e p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s o f human a c t i v i t y .

I n t h e same department D r M e r r i l e e s and o t h e r s a r e reviewing a number of L a t e Quaternary mammalian assemblages which a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o d e f i n i n g t h e c o n t e x t of human presence i n t h e west o f t h e

c o n t i n e n t . Mr Kendrick c o n t i n u e s t o work on s t a g e s i n the

d e v e l o p m t o f molluscan fauna, which w i l l i n t h e l o n g run p r o v i d e a complete c h r o n o l o g i c a l framework f o r Quaternary d e p o s i t s and t h e i r a r t e f a c t u a l c o n t e n t s . Such a framework i s p a r t i c u l a r l y necessary t o r e s o l v e t h e problems of t h e w e s t c o a s t a l p l a i n . One

important r e c e n t molluscan s t u d y (Kendrick 1976) demonstrates marine c o n d i t i o n s h i g h up t h e Swan-Helena, i . e . v e r y l i t t l e f r e s h w a t e r flow and extremely dry c o n d i t i o n s , in t h e mid-Holocene. I n Madura Cave, on t h e southern edge of t h e Y u l l a r b o r P l a i n , dingo r e p l a c e d t h y l a c i n e about 3500 y e a r s ago, soon a f t e r i n c r e a s e d amounts of bone and a r t e f a c t d e b r i s i n d i c a t e d an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f human a c t i v i t y around 4000 BP (Milham and Thompson 1976). The l o n e r l e v e l s c o n t a i n l e s s occupation m a t e r i a l , back t o 8000 y e a r s ago, and some fragments o f e x t i n c t fauna, e.g.

E?otemnodotz,

Sthenzmw.

2rcbzbly d e r i v e d from c h a n n e l l i n g and reworking o f o l d e r d e w s i t

(i3id.

1

.

3. F l o r a

Miss Milne came t o P e r t h i n March 1976 t o begin post-graduate

s t u d i e s i n Geology under D r Balme i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Western A u s t r a l i a , working on t h e Quaternary palynology of some southwestern e s t u a r i e s .

The k p o r t a n c e t o p r e h i s t o r y o f f a u n a l , f l o r a l and geomorphic s t u d i e s i s made c l e a r by t h e problems which a r i s e i n a s s e s s i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l span of the occurrence of assemblages c o n t a i c i n g a r t e f a c t s manufactured from Late Eocene f o s s i l i f e r o u s c n e r t ( p l u s u s u a l l y a few i n s i l c r e t e , and some q u a r t z ) i n

d e f l a t i n g hollows w i t h i n t h e sand d e p o s i t s of t h e western c o a s t a l p l a i n . S e v e r a l u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e q t s have been made (e.g. by H a l l a m n e a r t h e mouth o f t h e Moore River i n 1973) t o recover a r t e f a c t s of Eocene c h e r t i n s t r a t i g r a p h i c , d a t a b l e , c o n t e x t . Dorth (1975) f i z z l l y r e c o v e r e d c h e r t f l a k e s

in

siih w i t h i n t h e Spearwood Dune system a t Minim Cove, on t h e Swan River j u s t n o r t h of Fremantle.

Accompaiiying c h a r c o a l h a s given a d a t e of 9930

+

1 3 0 b p (SUA 454

-

p e r s o n a l communication, C. Dortch 1976)

.

^R.H. Pearce (n. d. ) h a s excavated a r t e f a c t s i n t h i s same c h e r t from Walyunga, a l s o a l o n g s i d e t h e Swan, b u t w i t h i n t h e D a r l i n g Range e a s t o f t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , from l e v e l s spanning from b e f o r e 8,000 5 260 bp (SUA 510) t o a f t e r 6,135 5 160 bp (SUA 509). S i m i l a r s t o n e was used f o r a r t e f a c t s between 25,003 and 12,000 bp a t D e v i l ' s L a i r (Dortch and M e r r i l e e s 1973; Dortch 1974; Dortch 1 9 7 5 ) . Nonetheless, no lower l i m i t has been e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e span o f u s e of a r t e f a c t s from Late Eocene s o u r c e s , nor f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e d e p o s i t s which c o n t a i n them.

Indeed, t h e chronology and processes of formation of t h e c o a s t a l p + a i n d e p o s i t s , and t h e environment of i t s e a r l y occupants, a r e s o l i t t l e understood t h a t d e b a t e i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e a s t o whether t h e y e l l o w non-calcareous sands o f t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f t h e P e r t h Basin r e p r e s e n t d e c a l c i f i e d a e o l i a n i t e (McArthur and Bettenay 1960) o r an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e sand f a c i e s of similar (yellow) c o l o u r , t e x t u r e and s i l i c e o u s composition which covers much o f t h e Yilgarn Block t o t h e e a s t of the D a r l i n g Scarp, i n t e r p r e t e d by G l a s s f o r d and K i l l i g r e w

(1976) a s " t h e p r o d u c t o f s e v e r a l a r i d zone advances.. .throughout t h e Quaternary". T h i s might imply d a t e s f o r t h e yellow sands (and p o s s i b l y t h e i r c o n t e n t s ? ) e a r l i e r than t h e more c o a s t a l , and p a r t i a l l y o v e r l y i n g , a e o l i a n l i m e s t o n e , which on R o t t n e s t h a s been given a d a t e i n e x c e s s o f 100,000 BP ( T e i c h e r t 1967; Geological Survey o f Western A u s t r a l i a 1975, p. 256). A p u r e l y a e o l i a n o r i g i n f o r w e s t c o a s t sand d e p o s i t s i s perhaps r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n of anti-clockwise sand-flow d u r i n g peak a e o l i a n a c t i v i t y a t g l a c i a l maxima, with westward winds far t o t h e n o r t h of t h e Perth Basin ( B w l e r 1 9 7 6 ) .

Besides t h e problem and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f f e r e d by t h e geolnorphology of t h e c o a s t a l d e p o s i t s a s a framework f o r human a c t i v i t y , t h e

l u n e t t e s of t h e s a l i n e l a k e s o f t h e i n t e r i o r of southwestern Western A u s t r a l i a , w i t h peak dune-building about 20,000 t o 15,000 BP

(Bowler 1 9 7 6 ) , o f f e r another p o t e n t i a l l y d a t a b l e c o n t e x t f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a r t e f a c t assemblages.

Mr M. Ufgren, Curator of Anthropology in the Western Australian Museum, is investigating artefactual material which on geoaorphic grounds appears to be of potentially great age.

S. Skeletal salvage

The Department of Aboriginal Sites of the Western Australian Museum has Seen inevitably concerned with rescuing eroding skeletal material from various deflating coastal dunes, including public beaches where bones would be exposed to fossicking e.g. Karatha (Palmer, June 1975) 1 near the mouth of the Bowes River (Maynard and Wright, January 1976); and south of Bunbury (Maynard, June 1976; Maynard and Wright, October 1976).

Mr Lofgren is engaged in the conservation and preservation of human skeletal material from Western Australia.

6. Petrology

Dr Glover of the Department o f Geology of the University of Western Australia has continued his studies of the sources of the raw materials for southwestern artefacts. He has widened his interest iron the Late Eooene fossiliferous cherts, which occur commonly in +Ae western part of the Perth coastal plain, and decline eastwards, suggesting a source offshore below present sealevel, now made more likely by the finding of Late Eocene rock in offshore bores (Glover 1975a; Geological Survey of W.A. 1975, p. 254) and by the date for the cessation of the use of fossiliferous chert given by Pearce's Walyunga excavations (see below). Glover has now published a full review of rock-types used in artefact assemblages in the Perth Basin (Glover 1975b) and has prepared (Glover, in press) a study of a particular variety of greenish "cherty" material available from the Prer;rmbrian rocks of the Darling Scarp, and much used for finer tools, especially backed artefacts and "flat adzesn, in assemblages from sites both in the Perth Basin, west of the scarp, and also eastward into the Darling range and as far inland as the Avon valley.

7. "Small tool" studies

Another investigation focussed on a particular topic rather than a particular Yegion is Mr R.H. Pearce's study of "small tool"

assemblages, a _post-graduate project in the Department of Anthropology of the University of Western Australia. This includes a comparison of &he measured characteristics of the backed components of systematic sanples and existing museum and private collections from sites

distributed from Zanthus on the transcontinental railway in the east to the Perth area in the west, and from Pardoo and Millstream Station on the Fortescue River in the north to the south coast; seeking

significant variation in date, in region and in available raw material.

Several test trenches were excavated to try to obtain dated

assemblages

-

at five sites near Perth (Fremnells, Bingham Street, North Lake, Soldiers Road-Mundijong and Walyunga) in May to June 1975; at two sites in the Murchison (Mt. Narryer Lunette and Bilung P o o l ) in September 1975; and at Lake Ewlyamartup, just east of Ilatanning, about 170 miles SSE of Perth, in May 1976.

O f t h e s e , t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s came from the Walwga s i t e , 25 m i l e s n o r t h of P e r t h , near a permanent p o o l a few miles upszream from where t h e Swan River Gorge emerges from t h e Darling Scarp. A s n o t e d by Dortch (1975) t h e lower metre of t h e 1.8 m sequence o f aggraded d e p o s i t s c o n t a i n s a small b u t s t e a d y p r o p o r t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s i n Eocene f o s s i l i f e r o u s c h e r t . These cease (except

f o r one s t r a y n e a r t h e s u r f a c e ) a t t h e l e v e l b e f o r e t h a t i n which t h e f i r s t "backed b l a d e " o c c u r s . S i l c r e t e a l s o c e a s e s t o be used.

The upper of t h e sequence i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by small numbers of "backed b l a d e s " and " f l a t adzes" throughout; an i n c r e a s e d number of f a b r i c a t o r s ; and a l a r g e i n c r e a s e ( X 6 ) i n t h e amounts of t h e l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e m y l o n i t e used. The l a t t e r may be seen as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e f o s s i l i f e r o u s c h e r t , t h e s o u r c e s of which have been l o s t below r i s i n g s e a s . This a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e d a t e s now o b t a i n e d . The a b r u p t change i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e sequence, between s p i t s 17 and 1 6 , i s b r a c k e t t e d by a d a t e of 3,220 2 100 bp

(SUA 509) i n s p i t 14 above i t , and a d a t e of 6,135 2 160 bp i n s p i t 15 Yelow it. Eocene c 3 e r t h a s ceased t o be a v a i l a b l e , and "backed b l a d e s " and " f l a t adzes1' have appeared between t h e s e two d a t e s .

A d a t e of 8,000 2 260 bp (SUA 510) has been o b t a i n e d from a d e p t h o f 150-155 cm. The l o w e s t a r t e f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l comes from 180 cm. An e x t e n s i o n o f t h e a r e a of i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s needed t o o b t a i n s ~ f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e samples from each l e v e l of t h e long sequence.

The g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e of Walyunga i s t h a t a s an open s i t e it i s f a r more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of normal day-to-day Aboriginal a c t i v i t i e s t h a n a cave; w h i l e n o n e t h e l e s s o f f e r i n g a long sequence o f d a t a b l e o c c u p a t i o n t r a c i n g major changes i n t h e t o o l assemblages of t h e southwest.

8. E t h n o h i s t o r y , ethnoarchaeology, m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and experimental s t u d i e s

The r e c o r d i n g done by t h e r e g i o n a l f i e l d o f f i c e r s o f t h e Aboriginal S i t e s Department o f t h e West A u s t r a l i a n Museum h a s a major ethnographic component, because t h e ' s i t e s of s i g n i f i c a n c e ' programme i n t h i s s t a t e i s c l o s e l y concerned w i t h s i t e s which a r e o f c o n t i n u i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e t o present-day A b o r i g i n e s , whether o r n o t t h e s e a r e s i t e s which would be d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y .

.

These s t u d i e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l u a b l e b o t h i n what t h e y can c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s i t e s , b o t h r i t u a l and domestic, and i n demonstrating the r e l a t i v e r o l e o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l remains i n b o t h the c o g n i t i v e a d economic l i f e and l o r e o f t h e groups concerned, and how much would escape t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l n e t .

The area-by-area work o f t h e S i t e s Department i s d e t a i l e d below m d e r Reqional I n v e s t i q a t i o n s

.

P a l n e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , h a s published a paper a t t e m p t i n g an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f rock engravings i n t h e Dampier Archipelago, on t 5 e b a s i s of o r a l e v i d e n c e from mainland Aborigines (Palmer 1975;

c f . Wrisht 1968)

.

Paintings i n the Kimberley (south of the Wandj ina area) are described by Akennan (1976b). Those i n white clay include representations of men playing t h e didgeridoo, and must be dated by t h e ethnohistorical evidence f o r t h e spread of t h e instrument i n t o Kimberley from the Northern T e r r i t o r y e a r l y t h i s century.

Akerman i s continuing h i s s t u d i e s of t h e material c u l t u r d of t h e northwest and centre of t h e s t a t e , o f t e n with c l e a r implications f o r archaeological i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e.g., the use of baler s h e l l f o r hafted chisels and knives (Akerman 1975a1.; r a f t s as e f f i c i e n t watercraft (Akerman 1975b) ; t h e now abandoned use of stone fish-traps (Akerman 1976a)

.

In reviewing material from the west coast of Dampierland,

Akennan (197%) uses ethnographic knowledge of e x p l o i t a t i o n p a t t e r n s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e patterning of archaeological assemblages; and in a study of large "backed" inplements from one p a r t i c u l a r s i t e

( 1 9 7 6 ~ ) he applies it t o a r t e f a c t technology. This type of study is taken one stage further in Akeraoan's (1976d) experiments in t h e manufacture of elongated flakes from prepared cores, s u i t a b l e as l e i l i r a knives. A more purely archaeological study (Akerman 1975d) concerns the use of a u s t r a l i t e s a s raw material f o r small t o o l s .

A combination of ethnographic and experimental work has a l s o , surprisingly, been possible i n the south of the s t a t e , where M r Beecke, a local farmer, has been recording the surviving data on Aboriginal patterns of exploitation and technology i n t h e Katanning area, including p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s of

hunting and butchering kangaroo, and manufacturing from t h e f i b u l a a pointed pin f o r fastening the skin cloak, and a hollow spatula f o r piercing holes i n the skin and threading a thong through t h e hole

.

The f i r s t implement thus manufactured bears a remarkable resemblance t o a similar form excavated from 19,000 BP l e v e l s i n Devil1 S Lair (Dortch and Merrilees 1973, f i g . 8.2) and t h e second can a l s o be matched there.

Valuable ethnohistorical material on t h e south of t h e s t a t e has recently been made available with t h e publication of t h e information recorded f o r Jarramungup, an i s o l a t e d sheep s t a t i o n about 100 miles northeast of Albany, byMrsE. Hassell, who l i v e d there from 1878 t o 1886. Mrs H a s s e l l ' s valuable material had already been p a r t l y pbulished as edited by Davidson, but the new book (Hassell 1975) edited by C. Hassell r e t a i n s not only information on dress, weapons, and myths, but a l i v e l y impression of t h e t o t a l quality of l i f e .

Erickson's (1974) book on t h e Toodyay area i l l u s t r a t e s

ethnohistorical data providing a p o t e n t i a l baseline f o r archaeological extrapolation. Whitfield's detailed l i s t of Aborigines and the

s t a t i o n s t o which they were attached i n 1840, and Salvado's similar individual-by-individual census f o r 1858 a r e r a r e examples of

r e l i a b l e demographic data.

Regional Investigations

1. Northcliffe area

Dortch, i n association with Gardner (Dortch and Gardner 1976) i s responsible f o r a very impartant regional investigation i n the south of t h e s t a t e . While not so ixmnediately spectacular as the Devil's Lair excavation, h i s regional study of the Northcliffe area reveais a p a t t e r n of l i f e on the dunes and swales of the southern coastzi p l a i n maintained and modified continuously f o r over 7000 years. M a s t of the 30 s i t e s and s i t e complexes investigated l i e on dune ridges adjacent t o marshes o r lakes. Most s i t e s a r e small

(many l e s s than 20 a r t e f a c t s ) representing probably brief ephemeral occupation; while two major domestic s i t e s and one quarry represent recurrent usage by l a r g e r groups. The inland f o r e s t s i t e s are smaller on the whole, which would correspond t o the pattern of s c a t t e r i n g i n t o smzller groups i n the winter seen elsewhere i n -he soxthwest (Hallam 1975). Camp s i t e s i n calcareous dunes, with caves nearby, i n the area of Malirnup Spring produced sparse s c a t t e r s of edible molluscs, t h e f i r s t substantial evidence south of the H i l l River f o r a time when the ban on eating molluscs

(evidenced a t contact) d i d not apply. The assemblages from t h i s g r o w of s i t e s included uniformally trimmed pebble tools. In most other asse&lages, including t h e two l a r g e s t near Point d'Entrecasteaux, there i s l i t t l e t o suggest much occupation before the f i r s t use of backed t o o l s and f l a t adzes some time a f t e r 6800 years ago. The major raw material i s s i l c r e t e , and an outcrop and quarry have been i d e n t i f i e d . Economic a c t i v i t i e s are taken up t o European contact with the description of a f i s h t r a p on the Blackwater Creek near Point dVEntrecasteaux.

2. Lake Peel-Pre ston Lakelands

Mrs V. Novak of t h e Aboriginal S i t e s Department (see below) l'nvestigated i n May 1975 an area running south from Mandurah, lying between the sea on t h e west and the Peel I n l e t

-

Harvey estuary

-

Karvey River system on the e a s t . In a short period some s i x t y s i t e s were added t o t h e seven previously known. Of these s i t e s , one was a ceremonial s i t e , one a cave containing fresh water i n i t s depths and with roof scratchings, a l l other s i t e s being surface s c z t t e r s of a r t e f a c t s . Of 65 s i t e s , the great majority were small suxface s c a t t e r s comprising fewer than a dozen a r t e f a c t s ; only 10 t o t a l assemblages comprised more than a dozen a r t e f a c t s , only three more than f i f t y , and only one s i t e more than 200. Only t h i s l a s t s i t e and two others had grinding material. Blanket surveys such as this a r e needed t o give a correct estimate of the r a t i o of small ephemeral t o recurrently frequented s i t e s , and an even wider survey i s needed t o d e l i n e a t e the overall picture which includes l o c a l i t i e s much frequented by big groups over long periods (cf.

Walyunga). The r a t i o of frequented s i t e s appears considerably lower ic the S w m survey (see below)

-

^perhaps the thoroughness of search has been g r e z t e r , revealing more "trace" s i t e s !

3. Swan River survey

This p r o j e c t has been under way i n the Department of Anthropology, Yniversity of Western Australia, since 1974, with the help of funding frcm t h e Australian Research Grants Council t o Mrs S . Hallam for a

~ r a d u a t e research a s s i s t a n t (Hallam 1976; n. d. 1

.

The o r i g i n a l aims of the p r o j e c t were " t o e l u c i d z t e the changing occupance patterns of p r e h i s t o r i c Aboriginal populations over an area which included a t l e a s t t h e range of movement of one community and p a r t of the t e r r a i n of adjacent groups along a t r a n s e c t , centred on the Swan estuary, across the c o a s t a l plan and the forested Darling Plateau, t o t h e more a r i d country f u r t h e r inland". The suntey was undertaken because preliminary ground surveys had suggested differences i n the patterns of usage between d i f f e r e n t ecological zones, the forested area, f o r

instance, showing l i t t l e evidence of e q l o i t a t i o n a s compared with the coastal plain on one side o r t h e Avon valley on t h e other;

while d i f f e r e n t ecological sub-zones within the c o a s t a l zone showed d i f f e r e n t degrees of e x p l o i t a t i o n , s i t e density being f a r higher, f o r instance, around the swamps and lakes of the sandplain

(Bassendean Sands) north and south of Perth than on t h e c o a s t a l limestone (Spearwood Dunes); while the recent immediately c o a s t a l dunes (Quindalup Dunes) were devoid of Aboriginal s i t e s . Preliminary survey had a l s o suggested differences i n the trends which usage of d i f f e r e n t areas showed over time, e.g.' while t h e r e was l i t t l e difference between the numbers of s i t e s per u n i t area before 5,000 years ago (Early Phase) and a f t e r 5,000 years ago (Middle and Late Phases) i n the inland, t h e r e was a vast preponderance of Late Phase s i t e s on the coastal p l a i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y over the sandplain; by contrast, the coastal limestone showed some Early occu;?ation, but r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e Late. Certain c r u c i a l s i t e s and zones showed p e r s i s t e n t heavy occupation through a11 phases:- s i t e s by permanent water, e.g. on streams debauching from the h i l l s ; s i t e s a t the foot of the Darling Scarp, adjacent t o forested upland and coastal plain resources; and s i t e s where t h e dry sandhills of the Bassendean Sands lay adjacent t o the f e r t i l e pastures of the coastal p l a i n alluvium (Pinjarrah P l a i n )

(Hallam 1972, 1975)

.

These general aims a r e being pursued through a number of s p e c i f i c investigations :

-

s e l e c t i v e excavation a t a few s i t e s had established a basic chronological frame. The investigation is now centred on -face m e y 8 aimed t o locate, record-and make systematic surface collections from individual s i t e s and groups of s i t e s . I t was hoped i n i t i a l l y t o carry out a systematic search of a s t a t i s t i c a l l y valid sample of g r i d squares i n order t h a t inferences might be drawn on the r e l a t i v e degree of usage of each zone and each subzone within each phase, and trends between phases. The detailed c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , counting and percentaging of a l l a r t e f a c t s i n a representative sample f r o m each s i t e was deemed necessary i n order t o determine ( i ) the dens<@ of material on the s i t e , and so the order of magnitude of t h e - t o t a t quantity

(as some measure of i n t e n s i t y of usage ^X time) (ii) the type of s i t e s , e.g. the presence of grinding material i n d i c a t e s much- frequented base camps used by a l l members of the community, while a few sparse flakes indicates an ephemeral stop-over; (iii) the phase (or phases) during which t h e s i t e was frequented, e.g. the presence of f o s s i l i f e r o u s chert and/or a high proportion of steep scrapers indicates early usage, backed blades a t i m e a f t e r 5,000 BP, high proportions of quartz and f a b r i c a t o r s a Late occupation, worked European glass post-contact usage. S t a t i s t i c a l study of assemblage analyses is planned t o determine recurring patterns of assemblages

(e.g. t o t e s t the apparently recurrent association of grinding material w i t h dense a r t e f a c t concentrations, high t o t a l quantity, and multi- phase occupation) and t o t e s t s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n i n t e n s i t y of usage (as indicated by numbers of s i t e s and q u a n t i t i e s of m a t e r i a l

per =it a r e a ) between ecological zones and between phases.

E+hnohistorical data had already been used t o suggest the model f o r investigation. Oral sources, while irumnsely valuable, were seen a s a separate f i e l d of investigation, but t h r u s t themselves upon us nonetheless.

The main s t r e s s throughout has been on m f a c e survey, beginning with s i t e s already discovered and reported. We immediately began t o r e a l i z e both the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and the responsibilities of working i n the Perth metro-politan area, and t h i s has continued t o shape the development of our work.

It i s the pace of e a r t h movement ( i n sand quarries, i n d u s t r i a l s i t e s , building s i t e s ) which provides both t h e o p p m h d Q j t o discover and delimit a r t e f a c t s c a t t e r s devoid of vegetation cover, and the necessit,u t o record and make systematic collections before destruction. S i t e s l e f t u n t i l our grid search reaches the area will have i n e v i t a b l y disappeared by then.

W e have therefore followed a two-fold policy of (i) recording and c o l l e c t i n g a s soon a s possible from

s i t m

reported by students and i n t e r e s t e d a n a t e ~ r s ; and (ii) systematic search, grid square by g r i d square, r e s t r i c t e d s o far to the metropolitan area. The

~ r o w r t i o n cf the metropolitan area which i s not available t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s so high (though not as high as i n much of undeveloped bush end f o r e s t country immediately around) t h a t a policy of toi5uZ search across a b e l t of grid squares has been adopteb. So f a r a b e l t immediately e i t h e r side of the r i v e r (as highest i n p o t e n t i a l and r i s k ) has been searched, plus an east-west swathe fron +he coast a t City Beach across t o Guildford, crossing proportionate sections of Quindalus Dunes, Spearwood Dunes,

Bassendean Sands and inpinging on Pinjarrah Plain.

This west-east swathe now extends from the coast ( a t approx.

g r i d l i n e 374,000 yards E) to grid-line 400,OO E. The North and South boundaries l i e a t 1,058,000 N and 1,050,000 N. Two-thirds of t h e next west-east swathe (south t o 1,040,000 N) have already been covered by t h e r i v e r b e l t survey. I t i s hoped t o extend f u l l y systematic survey i n t o a t h i r d and l a s t east-west b e l t

(south t o 1,034,000 N) by 1977; and t o extend a l l three b e l t s e a s t t o the Darling ^Scarp a t approximately 404,000 E, a more d i f f i c u l t task because more heavily vegetated country i s involved.

For each s i t e a record i s made of location, condition, ecology ( s o i l , vegetation, water), density and extent of a r t e f a c t s c a t t e r .

A c o l l e c t i o n i s made from sample grid squares, o r a t o t a l collection where material i s sparse. J u s t over 260 s i t e s of a l l types

(including a r t and r i t u a l s i t e s ) have now been recorded. O f these nearly 240 have a domestic component. About a quarter of these s i t e s were recorded i n the l a s t two years.

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and counting of s i t e material enables us t o say, f o r example, t h a t only a f i f t h of the s i t e s contain grinding material i n d i c a t i n g "base camp" functions; t h a t about 10% have such q a a n t i t i e s of material as t o indicate intensive frequenting, by

large numbers of people, and/or f o r long spans of the year (though not, it appears, necessarily through a long range of d a t e s ) . The f e r t i l e alluvium of the Pinjarrah Plain c a r r i e s a much higher proportion (over a third) of intensively occupied s i t e s than the general proportion. Similarly s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n by phase of occupation can be investigated, though the sampling belt needs t o be carried across t o the scarp before adequate

figures can be obtained.

An elaborate format evolved in ¹⁹⁷⁴ f o r recording a f u l l range of data on each s i t e ( f i e l d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , l i t h o l o g y , typology, e t c . ) w i l l make it possible not only t o i n v e s t i g a t e the more obvious gross characteristics of s i t e s (e.g. the correlation between s i z e of s i t e and presence of grinding m a t e r i a l ) ; but a l s o t o look a t e.g. the correlation between the presence of backed blades and other s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( s i z e , permanence, ecological zone); o r preferences f o r t h e use of c e r t a i n stone types i n the

~ a ~ u f a c t u r e of certain a r t e f a c t types.

A major d i f f i c u l t y is sampling procedures. Artefact assemblages a r e not v i s i b l e under heavy vegetation and can be detected only when disturbed. Hence highly disturbed areas such a s -e

metropolitan area o f f e r the maximum opportunities f o r investigation, although large areas are sealed by buildings, e t c . and not a v a i l a b l e for sampling. E f f o r t s have been concentrated on exploring the

(large) residue of open areas within the metropolitan b e l t . I t l s thus possible t o make certain types of statements (e.g. no s i t e s have been discovered i n the Quindalup Dune zone, o r t h e Bassendean Sands zone c a r r i e s a r e l a t i v e l y high r a t i o of Late t o 3arly s i t e s , while f o r the Spearwcod Dunes t h a t r a t i o i s low), but not others ( e . g . the r a t i o of s i t e s of each phase t o area explored i n each zone i s not r e a l l y meaningful). Nonetheless we have a body of data on the relationships between s i t e type, phase, and ecological zonation which I believe t o be unmatched i n hunter/gatherer studies.

The b u l k of material coming i n represents a massive task i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

While largely forced by l o g i s t i c s , t h e concentration of e f f o r t on a smaller area is making possible an extremely thorough study.

This remains within the framework of e a r l i e r preliminary i n v e s t i g a t i o n s which s e t t h i s section of the coastal plain within a wider context.

4. Murchison/Gascoyne surveys

Mr D. McCaskill who for many years had been recording rock a r t i n his spare time in short s p e l l s in the f i e l d (e.g. McCaskill 1968;

nod.) was granted one year's leave from t h e Methodist ministry t o take up an Australian I n s t i t u t e of Aboriginal Studies grant which enabled him t o spend the whole of 1975 recording s i t e s i n the Gascoyne/Muchison area as p a r t of the Aboriginal S i t e s of Significance programme.

McCaskill has worked closely with the Aborigines of the area, with whom he has b u i l t up a close rapport over mny years, enabling him t o give an in-depth significance t o s i t e s which it had previously seemed must necessarily renuin t a n t i l i s i n g c o l l e c t i o n s of a r t motifs.

Mr J . C l a r k has worked w i t h McCaskill on c o n s e r v a t i o n a s p e c t s . I n September 1975 Mr R.H, P e a r c e accompanied McCaskill t o t h e M u c h i s o n t o carry o u t s y s t e m a t i c s a u p l i n g and t r i a l t r e n c h i n g on sites w i t h s u r f a c e assemblages, some of which had a 'backed b l a d e

'

component. Mrs V . Novak of t h e S i t e s Department was a l s o i n v o l v e d i n r e c o r d i n g Murchison s i t e s i n April/May 1976.

I n May 1976 D. Byrne, o f t h e Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Western A u s t r a l i a began a survey o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sites i n t h e Lower Murchison River a r e a . T h i s a r e a i s a t t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n margin o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n a r i d zone and i s dominated by t h e d r a i n a g e system of t h e Murchison River. I n i t i a l l y t h e

f o c u s of a t t e n t i o n h a s been t h e t r a c t of country a d j a c e n t t o t h e r i v e r . It i s i n t e n d e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e r i v e r on g r o s s s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and s e a s o n a l movement o f groups.

Within 50 k i l o m e t r e s o f t h e c o a s t over 40 occupation s i t e s have been l o c a t e d i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o the r i v e r . I n 1977 a small e x c a v a t i o n o f one o f t h e s e s i t e s i s planned i n a d d i t i o n t o broadening t h e s i t e survey t o a r e a s more d i s t a n t from t h e r i v e r .

5 . P i l b a r a and Kimberley s u r v e y s , e t c .

A prograxune f o r t h e r e c o r d i n g of engraved art i n s e v e r a l v a l l e y s on Dampier I s l a n d i s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e h e l p of an A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f A b o r i g i n a l S t u d i e s g r a n t t o M r E , V i r i l l i

( n . d , ) . The emphasis i s on n o t only t h e c a r e f u l r e c o r d i n g of

i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s b u t on p r e c i s e surveying o f t h e p o s i t i o n , o r i e n t a t i o n , and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (e.g. weathering) o f t h e s e i n r e l a t i o n t o the b o u l d e r s on which t h e y a r e engraved and t h e v a l l e y a s a whole.

D r M. L o r b l a n c h e t , a c t i n g a s c o n s u l t a n t t o t h i s p r o j e c t , excavated a s h e l l midden a t t h e bottom of Skew v a l l e y i n May 1976, following a p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t i n g of t h e same midden c a r r i e d o u t on b e h a l f of t h e S i t e s Department i n 1974.

A g r e a t p a r t o f t h e burden of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l survey ahead of proposed developments i n t h e n o r t h and e a s t o f t h e s t a t e has f a l l e n on t h e A k o r i g i n a l S i t e s Department w i t h i n t h e Western A u s t r a l i a n Museum, which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e

A b o r i g i n a l H e r i t a g e Act ( 1 9 7 2 ) . M r . B . Wright took up t h e appoint- ment as R e g i s t r a r of A b o r i g i n a l S i t e s heading t h i s department i n

1975, when M r W. Dix l e f t t o become Deputy P r i n c i p a l o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n i n s t i t u t e of A b o r i g i n a l S t u d i e s . This department h a s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c a r r y i n g o u t a programme of s i t e r e c o r d i n g and s i t e p r o t e c t i o n . Regional Research O f f i c e r s have been appointed t o carry o u t this work i n t h e Kimberleys, t h e P i l b a r a and t h e Western Desert (Mr C.

Hamilton, Mr K. Palmer, Mr M. Robinson and Mr K. Liberman). A Research O f f i c e r , Mr J. C l a r k , has a l s o been appointed t o c a r r y o u t r e s e a r c h on t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of rock a r t , while a Research O f f i c e r

-

a r c h a e o l o g y ( c u r r e n t l y MS L. Maynard) undertakes s i t e s u r v e y s a d e x c a v a t i o n s in r a p i d development and s a l v a g e s i t u a t i o n s . A T r a i n i n g O f f i c e r ( M r P . Randolf) and Aboriginal t r a i n e e s (some of whom have now become t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n t s ) have a l s o been involved i n r e c o r d i n g and c o n s e r v a t i o n .

A major focus of the work of Regional Research Officers i s contact with Aboriginal people i n order t o e s t a b l i s h the nature, location and current significance of s i t e s , including p o t e n t i a l l y threatened s i t e s , t o them. This work has led t o t h e location and recording of hundreds of such s i t e s . Some a r e mythological s i t e s without any archaeological component ( i n the sense of a material feature which can be distinguished a s a human a r t e f a c t )

,

^{but most}

are s i t e s w i t h some associated material objects o r components.

Palmer has worked with Aborigines i n various centres i n t h e Pilbara recording traditions associated with various s i t e s (e.g.

Palmer 1975, see above). In p a r t i c u l a r he has undertaken a study of the Fortescue River area a s a s i t e complex; and has a l s o recorded the mythology of some of the East Pilbara desert s i t e s in the v i c i n i t y of Jigalong and the Canning Stock Route. Clark worked on rock art conservation i n the East Pilbara desert area in July/August 1976. Randolf and others were a l s o involved in Pilbara recording during 1975.

In March, April and July 1976, Wright and Maynard recorded archaeological (including rock a r t ) s i t e s in the Pilbara. The main objective was t o assess the r e l a t i v e impact on Aboriginal s i t e s of several alternative p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r the s i t i n g of dams i n the Pilbara area,(on the Sherlock, Harding, o r middle Fortescue River) i n order t o draw up a r a t i n g of 'preferences' which might influence the f i n a l decision.

Wright and Maynard also examined a rock s h e l t e r a t Mount Newman threatened by mining operations. One cubic metre was excavated in April 1976, and proved r i c h i n a r t e f a c t s and hearths, and a further one metre probe f a i l e d t o reach the bottom of the deposit.

Hamilton i n the Kimberley has worked in close association with Aboriginal people i n locating and recording t h e significance of

s i t e s in the Yampi Peninsula coastal area, the Kununurra area, and the northern section of the Canning Stock route including the Durba H i l l s (see Dix 1972)

.

^He has a l s o worked in the m n j a and Mitchell Plateau areas.

In July and August 1976 D r I. Crawford and Mr P. Ftandolf recorded s i t e s i n the Cape Voltaire, I n s t i t u t e Archipelago, and Mftchell River areas, with the emphasis on patterns of Aboriginal exploitation of terrain.

Other recent recording projects carried out by the Aboriginal S i t e s Department i n the north and e a s t include:- a survey i n the Agnew area carried out in June/July 1976 by MS L. Maynard, Mrs V. Novak and Mr K. Liberman i n October 1976 of the proposed Yeelirrie mining area, north of Leonora.

S . J . Hallam

University of Western Austral i a

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