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Australian Archaeology

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Full Citation Details:

Robins, R.P. & Walsh, G.L. 1979. Burial cylinders. The essence of

a dilemma in public archaeology. 'Australian Archaeology', no.9,

62-76.

B U R I A L C Y L I N D E R S

The essence o f a dilemna i n p u b l i c archaeology

R.P. Robins and G.L.

WaZsh

Abstract

The p r o p e r management of A b o r i g i n a l a r c h a e o l o g i c a l b u r i a l s r a i s e s b a s i c problems f o r p u b l i c a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a g e n c i e s i n A u s t r a l i a . We examine t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f some o f t h e s e problems u s i n g b a r k c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s from t h e c e n t r a l s o u t h e r n h i g h l a n d s of Queensland a s an example. An o u t l i n e of t h e n a t u r e , c o n t e n t s , and t h e h i s t o r y of t h e s e b u r i a l s i s g i v e n . T h i s h i s t o r y and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e t h e n compared w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of a rescue operation t h a t was t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e p o l i c y of a p u b l i c a r c h a e o l o g i c a l agency. The p o l i c y was found t o be i n a d e q u a t e t o p r o t e c t t h i s i n v a l u a b l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e .

I n t r o d u c t i o n

Accounts of A b o r i g i n a l mortuary remains i n A u s t r a l i a a r e n o t o f t e n p u b l i s h e d . There a r e two major r e a s o n s f o r t h i s . F i r s t l y , they a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s . Secondly, t h e y remain a s e n s i t i v e i s s u e w i t h i n A b o r i g i n a l communities t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a , and p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and p u b l i c a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a g e n c i e s have been sympathetic and r e s p o n s i v e towards A b o r i g i n a l f e e l i n g s about d e p a r t e d k i n . However, i n a r e a s o f A u s t r a l i a where t h e r e a r e no A b o r i g i n a l descendents t o l o o k a f t e r b u r i a l a r e a s t h e b e s t i n t e n t i o n s of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l community c a n , a t t i m e s , be a t odds w i t h a r e s p o n s i b l e p o l i c y towards t h e p r o t e c t i o n and p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e s e remains. A good example o f t h i s problem comes from t h e h i g h l a n d s of c e n t r a l s o u t h e r n Queensland.

The p a s t

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a p o t t e d h i s t o r y

Few e t h n o g r a p h i c accounts of mortuary p r a c t i c e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e u s e of b u r i a l c y l i n d e r s e x i s t f o r t h e Queensland c e n t r a l s o u t h e r n highland a r e a . An e a r l y a c c o u n t from t h e Barcoo R i v e r , Tambo, M t E n n i s k i l l e n a r e a r e l a t e s t h a t ' t h e dead (males) a r e b u r i e d f o r a time then d i s i n t e r r e d and t h e i r b o n e s c a r r i e d a b o u t i n b a r k c o f f i n s f o r s i x months and t h e n f i n a l l y r e - b u r i e d ' (Hyde e t

al.

i n Curr 1886:79). The account of R.C. L e t h b r i d g e i n Howitt (1904:467) of mortuary p r a c t i c e s on t h e Maronoa g i v e s g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

Not i n f r e q u e n t l y , however, t h e body i s d r i e d and c a r r i e d about f o r a l o n g t i m e

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e v e n , a s i n one c a s e f o r t h r e e y e a r s . Such a body i s d r i e d by b e i n g p l a c e d on a s t a g e under which t h e women keep a slow f i r e c o n s t a n t l y b u r n i n g

...

It i s u s u a l l y some young man who h a s d i e d a v i o l e n t d e a t h who i s d r i e d and c a r r i e d about by h i s k i n d r e d . The r e a s o n a s s i g n e d f o r t h e custom i s t h a t he h a s d i e d b e f o r e h i s time and would n o t r e s t i n h i s g r a v e . Such a body i s

t i e d up t i g h t l y a t f u l l l e n g t h i n a s h e e t o f b a r k , which is p a i n t e d and ornamented w i t h emu f e a t h e r s . When they a r e t r a v e l l i n g two young men c a r r y t h e body i n t h e day and watch i t a t n i g h t , t h e n two o t h e r s t h e day f o l l o w i n g and

SO on.

By 1901 t h e A b o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n of t h e a r e a had been reduced, d e t r i b a l i s e d o r r e l o c a t e d . Consequently, t r a d i t i o n a l mortuary p r a c t i c e s ceased and a l l p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s subsequent t o t h i s d a t e r e l a t e t o d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e c y l i n d e r s t h e m s e l v e s , o r t o t h e i r c o n t e n t s , n o t t o d i r e c t l y observed e t h n o g r a p h i c e v e n t s ( s e e Appendix I ) .

These p u b l i s h e d accounts form a broad b u t i r r e g u l a r s p e c t r u m o f o b s e r v a t i o n s from which o n l y c r u d e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s about

c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s can be made. C y l i n d e r s have been found t h r o u g h o u t a l a r g e a r e a o f t h e h i g h l a n d s e x t e n d i n g from B l a c k s P a l a c e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t ( I l l i d g e n . d . ; S t a r k 1933:85) t o Carnarvon Gorge i n t h e e a s t (Goddard 1942:76; Q u i n n e l l 1976:227) and from C a s t l e v a l e S t a t i o n i n t h e n o r t h (Gaukrodger 1924) t o Warrong S t a t i o n i n t h e s o u t h (Meston 1901) ( s e e F i g . 1 ) . The c y l i n d e r s c o n t a i n e d s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l of b o t h a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n . No decayed f l e s h o r h a i r h a s been found, and i n one i n s t a n c e t h e s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l had been r e a r r a n g e d , (Gaukrodger 1924) i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h i s was p r o b a b l y a secondary s t a g e of mortuary t r e a t m e n t . The c y l i n d e r s themselves were e l a b o r a t e l y p r e p a r e d . S k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l was wrapped i n s h e e t s of bark which were bound o r f a s t e n e d w i t h human h a i r (Geary 1939; Goddard 1942) and f i b r e s t r i n g , (Gaukrodger 1924). F e a t h e r s and ochre were used f o r d e c o r a t i o n (Geary 1939).

Some c y l i n d e r s were wrapped i n s k i n r u g s (Gaukrodger 1924) o r d e p o s i t e d w i t h grave goods i n c l u d i n g ' f i s h i n g n e t s made o u t o f f i b r e o r b a r k ' (MacLellan 1901).

The r e p o s i t o r i e s f o r i n t e r r e d m a t e r i a l were c o n s i s t e n t l y l e d g e s o r c a v e s i n sandstone c l i f f s , a c c e s s t o which was probably gained by p o l e s p l a c e d up a g a i n s t t h e w a l l ( I l l i d g e n . d . ) . Some of t h e r e p o s i t o r i e s c o n t a i n e d m u l t i p l e c y l i n d e r s

(Gaukrodger 1924; B u r c h e s t e r 1 9 6 7 ) , p o s s i b l y even hundreds ( I l l i d g e n . d . ) . Others c o n t a i n e d o n l y s i n g l e examples (Meston 1901; Goddard 1942). At Blacks P a l a c e and C a s t l e v a l e S t a t i o n a number of b u r i a l s had been p l a c e d i n t h e same c a v e , w h i l e a t t h e amptly named ' ~ o m b s * and i n Carnarvon Gorge numerous c a v e s c o n t a i n e d s i n g l e c y l i n d e r s . I n some i n s t a n c e s t h e e n t r a n c e s t o small caves were blocked w i t h s t o n e s (Gaukrodger 1924) and i n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s r e p o s i t o r i e s had been d e c o r a t e d w i t h a r t . On

Warrong S t a t i o n Meston (1901) observed t h a t 'On t h e r o o f and s i d e s of a l l c a v e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e dead were i m p r i n t s of hands done i n r e d o r w h i t e o c h r e ' .

The most c o n s i s t e n t o b s e r v a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o c y l i n d e r s c o n c e r n s t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n . Every documented s o u r c e d e s c r i b e s e i t h e r t h e removal o r d e s t r u c t i o n o f c y l i n d e r m a t e r i a l , o r makes some comment a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n . D e s p i t e , o r p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f , i t s e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n t h i s m a t e r i a l has undergone a c c e l e r a t e d d e t e r i o r a t i o n , p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c c o l l e c t i o n , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n and g h o u l i s h c u r i o s i t y , sometimes accompanied by b l a t a n t v a n d a l i s m . Fundamental i n f o r m a t i o n from t h i s v a l u a b l e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e h a s been l o s t . There i s no a c c u r a t e

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n o f c y l i n d e r s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e b u r i a l s and o t h e r t y p e s of b u r i a l s ( i f a n y ) i n t h e a r e a . D e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g t h e a g e , s e x and p a t h o l o g y o f t h e i n t e r r e d p o p u l a t i o n have been n e g l e c t e d . The s c a n t i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t h e a r t of t h e a r e a t o c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s i s summarised by Q u i n n e l (1976) 'These c o f f i n s have been found i n d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h r o c k a r t of a l l t e c h n i q u e s a l t h o u g h s t e n c i l s and p a i n t i n g s a r e most common. I n a d d i t i o n , a number of s k e l e t o n s w i t h o u t c o f f i n s a r e known i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a r t and t h e r e a r e a l s o c a s e s of c y l i n d e r s n o t d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r t . . . ' . There i s no knowledge o f t h e a n t i q u i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l , o r t h e r e a s o n s f o r i t s a p p a r e n t l y good s t a t e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n .

The p r e s e n t

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an a1 t e r n a t i v e

The most comprehensive d e s c r i p t i o n of a c y l i n d e r b u r i a l y e t u n d e r t a k e n r e s u l t e d from a r e s c u e ' e x c a v a t i o n ' .

I n 1 9 7 6 , one of t h e a u t h o r s (R.R.) i n s p e c t e d , a t a p r o p e r t y o w n e r ' s r e q u e s t , a b u r i a l c y l i n d e r l o c a t e d on a l e d g e i n a gorge i n t h e e a s t e r n end o f t h e Carnarvon Range. The l e d g e s u p p o r t i n g t h e b u r i a l was i n d a n g e r o f c o l l a p s i n g . The b u r i a l l a y c l o s e t o t h e b o u n d a r y o f two p r o p e r t i e s and was s u b j e c t t o an 'ownership' d i s p u t e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e b u r i a l had become a l o c a l c u r i o s i t y w i t h l a r g e p a r t i e s o f v i s i t o r s b e i n g shown t h e s i t e by owners from n e a r b y p r o p e r t i e s . Access t o t h e s i t e was i m p o s s i b l e t o s u p e r v i s e and damage t o , o r c o m p l e t e removal o f , t h e b u r i a l was l i k e l y . It i s p r o b a b l e t h a t i t e m s have been removed from t h e b u r i a l i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t . For t h e s e r e a s o n s , and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h o f f i c i a l p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g b u r i a l s ( s e e Appendix I ) , i t was d e c i d e d t o remove t h e b u r i a l t o a n e a r b y l o c a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n l e a v e i t o r t r a n s p o r t i t t o a l o c a l museum.

S i t e d e s c r i p t i o n : The g o r g e was formed by a c r e e k b i s e c t i n g t h e C l e m a t i s s a n d s t o n e of t h e Carnarvon Range e s c a r p m e n t . The w a l l s o f t h e gorge have n e a r v e r t i c a l upper f a c e s and b e n c h e d , b o u l d e r s t r e w n , o u t c r o p s u r f a c e s , which s u p p o r t

s a n d s t o n e f o r e s t (predominantly EucaZyptus watson&ana). The lower s u r f a c e s form s c r e e s l o p e s c o n s i s t i n g of r o c k o u t c r o p s , b o u l d e r r u b b l e and p o c k e t s o f s o i l , s u p p o r t i n g h i g h f o r e s t s dominated by EucaZyptus t e r e t i c o r n i s and Angophora f l o r i b u n d a .

The c y l i n d e r was l o c a t e d on a t h i n f r i a b l e s a n d s t o n e s h e l f on t h e n o r t h e r n w a l l of t h e gorge, 30m above t h e c r e e k bed. The b u r i a l s h e l f , and t h e major sandstone benches of t h e immediate a r e a i n c l i n e d a t 45'. Weathering and e r o s i o n had undermined t h e s h e l f and t h e s h e l f i t s e l f e x h i b i t e d s t r e s s f r a c t u r e s , r e n d e r i n g i t s c o l l a p s e imminent.

The c y l i n d e r had been placed on a bed o f l e a v e s (Croton i n s u t a r i s , F Z i n d e r s i a macuZosa, MeZaZeuca s p . and a t l e a s t t h r e e s p e c i e s of EucaZyptus), towards t h e r e a r o f t h e s h e l f , t h e lower end b e i n g wedged between t h e s h e l f and a s a n d s t o n e overhang immediately above t h e s h e l f . The upper 20cm o f t h e s h e l f was i n an advanced s t a t e of weathering. A f i n e , d r y weathered sand- s t o n e r u b b l e p a r t i a l l y covered t h e b u r i a l and l a r g e s a n d s t o n e b l o c k s (average d i a m e t e r 60cm) had been wedged i n t o t h e s h e l f i n

f r o n t o f , and above, t h e b u r i a l .

Removal and conservation measures

:

A

d e t a i l e d p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d was made of t h e b u r i a l u s i n g 120mm b l a c k and w h i t e and 35mm c o l o u r f i l m . A l l t h e l a r g e sand- s t o n e b l o c k s around t h e b u r i a l were removed and t h e s i t e was re-photographed. The l e d g e was t h e n c l e a r e d of a l l l o o s e powdery r u b b l e t o w i t h i n 20cm of t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h t r o w e l s and b r u s h e s . A l l d e b r i s removed was s i e v e d through a 2mm mesh s i e v e , and a l l samples of s k i n , f e a t h e r s , f u r , f i b u r e and l e a v e s were s o r t e d and k e p t f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Samples o f t h e weathered s a n d s t o n e . r u b b l e were a l s o taken. The c y l i n d e r was c a r e f u l l y c l e a n e d w i t h b r u s h e s , d e n t a l probes and an a i r b r u s h and t h e n re-photographed.

The d e b r i s beneath t h e c y l i n d e r was g r a d u a l l y u n d e r c u t t o

i s o l a t e t h e b u r i a l , which was then removed from t h e l e d g e o n t o a p l a s t i c s h e e t . The c y l i n d e r was t h e n lowered down t h e c l i f f f a c e i n a g a l v a n i s e d i r o n s l i n g .

I n t h e more convenient environment of a b a s e camp t h e c y l i n d e r was f u r t h e r c l e a n e d , photographed i n d e t a i l , and d e t a i l e d n o t e s and s c a l e drawings o f i t made. The c y l i n d e r was sprayed w i t h a s o l u t i o n of 20% by w e i g h t P e n t a c h l o r p h e n o l

f u n g i c i d e i n m i n e r a l t u r p e n t i n e u s i n g a household t y p e f l y s p r a y . F r a g i l e p o r t i o n s of t h e c y l i n d e r were c o n s o l i d a t e d w i t h v i n y l B u t y r a l r e s i n mixed w i t h 10% by weight s o l v e n t s o l u t i o n of N . Butanol and 20% by volume acetone. The c o n s o l i d a n t was b o t h sprayed on and a p p l i e d w i t h a brush.

The f u n g i c i d e was a l s o sprayed i n and around t h e a r e a of t h e cave i n which t h e c y l i n d e r was t o b e r e - d e p o s i t e d . The b u r i a l was t h e n l o c a t e d i n t h i s cave, which was s i t u a t e d i n a c l i f f i n

t h e nearby d i s s e c t e d r e s i d u a l s . The samples t h a t were t a k e n were h a l v e d ; one h a l f i s s t o r e d i n t h e Archaeology S e c t i o n , Queensland Museum, t h e o t h e r h a l f was used f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a n a l y s i s . The m a t e r i a l n o t d e s t r o y e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s i s a l s o housed i n t h e Queensland Museum.

Cylinder

d e s c r i p t i o n : The c o n t e n t s of t h e b u r i a l were encased i n a b a r k c y l i n d e r , t i g h t l y bound f o r almost i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h w i t h s t r i n g . The c y l i n d e r was 161cm l o n g and v a r i e d i n d i a m e t e r from 13.50cm t o 17.50cm ( s e e F i g . 2 ) .

Bark : The b a r k was a s i n g l e s h e e t , p r o b a b l y 'budgeroo' (Lysicarpus a u g u s t i f o Z i u s )

.

The b a r k between t h e s t r i n g gaps was ochred a l t h o u g h no o c h r e i n g occurred a t t h e head o r f o o t o f t h e c y l i n d e r .

C y l i n d e r f o o t : F i n e g r a s s which had been c u t and trimmed unevenly w i t h a b l u n t i n s t r u m e n t , had been packed i n t o t h e hollow end of t h e c y l i n d e r . A s k i n cap w i t h t h e f u r i n s i d e was bound o v e r t h e f o o t of t h e c y l i n d e r and extended lOcm up t h e s i d e . The upper p o r t i o n s of t h e s k i n had been d e c o r a t e d w i t h r e d o c h r e . Remains of a r e s i n band, 4.5cm i n w i d t h , were v i s i b l e 7cm from t h e f o o t .

Cylinder head : Skin capping w i t h t h e f u r i n s i d e a l s o encompassed t h e head of t h e b u r i a l , and extended 13cm up t h e s i d e s . It was bound t o t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h f i b r e s t r i n g . A s w i t h t h e f o o t , t h e r e was a packing of f i n e g r a s s i n t h e hollow of t h e c y l i n d e r , underneath t h e capping. The remnants o f w h i t e f e a t h e r s (Cacatua g a z e e t a

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w h i t e cockatoo) were tucked under t h e f i b r e s t r i n g and sinew f o r approximately 26cm o f t h e c y l i n d e r circum- f e r e n c e

.

Binding : ( a ) The predominant b i n d i n g was a r e d o c h r e d , 2-ply f i b r e s t r i n g of v a r i a b l e diameter. T h i s f i b r e s t r i n g was t i g h t l y and c o n t i n u o u s l y bound around almost t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e c y l i n d e r . General d e t e r i o r a t i o n caused s m a l l i r r e g u l a r gaps i n t h e b i n d i n g throughout t h e l e n g t h o f t h e c y l i n d e r . A 5cm gap o c c u r r e d 26cm from t h e f o o t .

(b) Two-ply human h a i r s t r i n g was bound around the c y l i n d e r llOcm t o 86cm from t h e f o o t . One end of t h e human h a i r s t r i n g was s p l i c e d w i t h f i n e f i b r e s t r i n g .

( c ) A s t r i p of sinew was l o o s e l y bound around t h e c y l i n d e r head.

(d) A s t r a n d of t h i n l y s t r i p p e d h i d e w i t h t h e f u r i n t a c t was a l s o bound around t h e head o f t h e c y l i n d e r .

Knots : I n t h e 2 4 t h band of f i b r e s t r i n g from t h e head, f o u r l a r g e k n o t s occurred i n a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l row, below t h e f e a t h e r q u i l l s a t t h e r e a r of t h e c y l i n d e r . Four k n o t s a l s o o c c u r r e d i n t h e lower 40cm of t h e f i b r e b i n d i n g . These may p o s s i b l y have been compression t i e s t o hold t h e c y l i n d e r i n p l a c e w h i l e t h e main b i n d i n g was completed.

Bone a r t e f a c t : A bone a r t e f a c t was t i e d t o t h e f i r s t s t r a n d of f i b r e b i n d i n g immediately below t h e b a s e of t h e f e a t h e r q u i l l s . I t was 13cm i n l e n g t h and averaged 4cm i n d i a m e t e r . Two-ply human h a i r s t r i n g was t i g h t l y wound around t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of

i t s l e n g t h , l e a v i n g lcm of unevenly f r a c t u r e d bone exposed a t t h e end a t t a c h e d t o t h e c y l i n d e r . The o p p o s i t e end o f t h e bone was encased i n a knob of r e s i n , and t h e m e d u l l a r y c a v i t y was a l s o s e a l e d w i t h r e s i n . A 2-ply f i b r e s t r a n d was s e a l e d i n t o , and extended from, t h e medullary c a v i t y t o form t h e uppermost loop o f t h e c y l i n d e r binding.

R e s i n : A m a j o r s e c t i o n on t h e c y l i n d e r was c o a t e d w i t h r e s i n . The r e s i n commenced 29cm from t h e head and c o n t i n u e d t o w i t h i n 26cm o f t h e f o o t , a l t h o u g h l a r g e a r e a s had f l a k e d o f f a t one t i m e . O c c a s i o n a l t r a c e s of y e l l o w o c h r e a p p e a r e d on t h e r e s i n .

S k i n : A r u g made from possum ( T r i c h o s u m s vuZpecuZa) and w a l l a b y s k i n s l a y b e s i d e t h e b u r i a l . I t was i n poor c o n d i t i o n and t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n c o u l d n o t be a c c u r a t e l y a s c e r t a i n e d . I t was made up of rough r e c t a n g l e s m e a s u r i n g 2.3cm X 17cm sewn t o g e t h e r i n a s i m p l e bag s t i t c h u s i n g

2-ply f i b r e s t r i n g w i t h two s t i t c h e s t o t h e c e n t i m e t r e . The s t i t c h h o l e s were p i e r c e d .

Concl us

_i

on

E t h n o g r a p h i c and h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t b a r k c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s were a d o p t e d a s a method o f A b o r i g i n a l i n t e r r - ment t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t r a l s o u t h e r n h i g h l a n d s of Queensland.

Recent a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e s e c y l i n d e r s a r e s t i l l t o b e found i n a good s t a t e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n . The combined e v i d e n c e , however, g i v e s o n l y a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n of t h e e x t e n t , number and c o n t e n t s , of t h e m a t e r i a l , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e a b u s e t o which b a r k c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s have b e e n s u b j e c t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p o t e n t i a l h a s n o t b e e n r e a l i s e d .

These r e s o u r c e s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n any f u t u r e a s s e s s m e n t of t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e a r e a , f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l of a c y l i n d e r l i e s n o t o n l y i n i t s i n h e r e n t v a l u e , b u t a l s o i n t h e d e p t h and c o m p l e x i t y o f i t s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a s s o c i a t e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e . C y l i n d e r b u r i a l s c o n t a i n b a r k , l e a v e s , wood, r e s i n , v e g e t a b l e f i b r e s t r i n g , human h a i r s t r i n g , a n i m a l s k i n , f u r and sinew, r e p t i l e and mammal bone, f e a t h e r s , o c h r e , and human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l . I n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d from t h e s e r e s o u r c e s c o u l d form t h e b a s i s f o r a d e t a i l e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s of demography, p a t h o l o g y , r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n , environment r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and t r a d e . The m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e i t e m s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s p r e s e n t t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t w i t h a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o o b t a i n a d e t a i l e d i n v e n t o r y o f t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f a p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n , a u n i q u e s i t u a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a . H i s t o r i c documentation i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e w e r e , i n p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t i e s i n s o u t h e r n c e n t r a l Queensland l a r g e numbers o f human s k e l e t o n s i n i n s i t u d a t a b l e c o n t e x t s . I n view of t h e r a r i t y of t h i s t y p e o f e v i d e n c e

(Thorne 1976) and t h e i m p o r t a n c e i t h o l d s i n t h e c u r r e n t A u s t r a l i a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s c e n e , s u c h s i t e s a r e of g r e a t v a l u e . Much of t h e s t e n c i l a r t o f t h e c e n t r a l h i g h l a n d s of Queensland i s of m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e i t e m s (Beaton and Walsh 1 9 7 7 ) . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of c y l i n d e r s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e i t e m s c o u l d o f f e r new i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r o c k a r t of t h a t a r e a .

However, i n Queensland, t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of informa- t i o n o b t a i n e d from e v e n t h e most comprehensive i n v e s t i g a t i o n of

bark burials is restricted by the terms of the official policy.

In short, this policy states 'that these burials should be left where they are, but that the scientific process of poisoning

the surrounding area in an endeavour to combat white ant

activity should be attempted ... in order that aboriginal burials might be regarded with equal sanctity as those belonging to other groups within the Australian Society'. The dilemma created by this policy is that it advocates two impractical, incompatible courses of action. If the aim of the policy is to ensure the sanctity of bark burials, why prevent white ant activity at all, particularly when the evidence suggests that the destruction of cylinders is brought about primarily by animals or people. It is difficult to envisage the implementation of such a policy

particularly when it precludes removal of material for identification, investigation or analysis. Consequently it is impossible to prove that material has been either taken or destroyed. This aspect of the policy is further hampered by the impracticality of its effective implementation. It is, short of a massive injection of funds and manpower, impossible to police and administer such a policy over this vast and rugged area. If the aim of the policy is to preserve burials then 'leaving them where they are, but poisoning the surrounding area' is almost a total negation of its stated intention. It is dubious whether 'poisoning the surrounding area' constitutes a 'scientific process', particularly when the material being poisoned is virtually an unknown quantity and when the results cannot be monitored. Furthermore, despite the assumed erradication of white ants, the cylinders are still subject to destruction by moisture, animals and humans. The variety of content of the cylinders precludes the use of standard treatment.

Each should be treated on its own merits, only after thorough investigation.

While archaeologists throughout Australia are cognisant of their responsibilities towards Aboriginal feelings about departed kin, in areas where there are no Aborigines left to speak for or protect bark burials an effective management policy is needed.

No matter what scientific processes are applied in the field, adequate protection for this valuable material will only eventuate if it is housed in a State or local museum.

Acknowl edqements

We would like to thank John Beaton, J. Hall, Ron Monroe and M.C. Quinnell for their advice and comments, John Clark and Andrew Elliot for assistance and advice in the field, Roger Cribb for the burial cylinder illustration, and the staff of the Queensland Museum and Department of Primary Industries for their valuable technical assistance. The field work on which this paper was based was carried out while R. Robins was employed as Field Archaeologist for the Archaeological Division, Department of Aboriginal and Islanders Advancement, under a grant from the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Their assistance is gratefully acknowledged.

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References

B e a t o n , J . M . and G.L. Walsh 1977 Che-ka-ra. Mankind 11:46-8 B u r c h e s t e r , K . J . 1967 The wanderings o f a gemhunter; a j o u r n e y

t o c e n t r a l Queensland i n s e a r c h of A b o r i g i n a l r e l i c s , r o c k s and f o s s i l s . Lapidary Magazine 3 : 3-10

C u r r , E.M, 1886 The A u s t r a l i a n Race. Government P r i n t e r : Melbourne

Gaukrodger, D.W. 1924 Queensland A b o r i g i n a l tombs i n t h e G r e a t D i v i d i n g Range. Sydney Mail. 27 February: 19-20 Geary, N . 1939 A b o r i g i n a l drawings i n t h e Carnarvon Range,

Queensland. The AustraZian Musewn Magazine 7 ( 1 ) : 11-12 Goddard, R.H. 1942 A b o r i g i n a l r o c k s c u l p t u r e , s t e n c i l l i n g and

p a i n t i n g s i n t h e Carnarvon Ranges, Queensland.

Geographical Journal 47:72-80

H o w i t t , A.W. 1904 Native T r i b e s o f South East A u s t r a l i a . MacMillan and Co.: London

I l l i d g e

,

T . n . d . P r e h i s t o r i c Aboriginal A r t . A b o r i g i n e s C u t t i n g Book. Oxley Memorial L i b r a r y : B r i s b a n e MacLellan, A.S. 1 9 0 1 T h e A b o r i g i n e s o f t h e Maranoa. The

Queenslander. 9 F e b r u a r y

Meston, A. 1901 Among t h e M y a l l s ; Maranoa A b o r i g i n e s . The Queens Zander. 1 2 F e b r u a r y

Q u i n n e l l , M . C . 1976 A b o r i g i n a l r o c k a r t i n Carnarvon Gorge, s o u t h c e n t r a l Queensland. MA t h e s i s : U n i v e r s i t y of New England

S t a r k , M. 1933 An A b o r i g i n a l a r t g a l l e r y . The A u s t r a Z i m Musewn Magazine 5 ( 3 ) :85-7

T h o r n e , A.G. 1976 M o r p h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a s t s i n P l e i s t o c e n e A u s t r a l i a n s . I n R.L. K i r k and A.G. Thorne ( e d s ) The Origin of t h e A u s t r a l i a n s . A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e of A b o r i g i n a l S t u d i e s : Canberra

Appendix

I

The P o l i c y on bark c y l i n d e r b u r i a l s adopted by t h e

Archaeological D i v i s i o n , Department o f A b o r i g i n a l and I s l a n d e r s Advancement

.

The f o l l o w i n g was a R e s o l u t i o n p a s s e d b y t h e Advisory Council a t t h e C a i r n s Conference i n February 1973, i n answer t o a submission p u t forward on b e h a l f o f t h e Department's Archaeological D i v i s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of b a r k b u r i a l s by w h i t e a n t s .

That t h e s e b u r i a l s should b e l e f t where t h e y a r e , b u t t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e s s o f p o i s o n i n g surrounding a r e a s i n an endeavour t o combat w h i t e a n t a c t i v i t y should be a t t e m p t e d .

T h i s R e s o l u t i o n i s i n accordance w i t h t h e c u r r e n t o p i n i o n s of t h e A b o r i g i n a l people i n t h a t t h e y f e e l , and q u i t e r i g h t l y s o , t h a t A b o r i g i n a l b u r i a l s should b e r e g a r d e d w i t h e q u a l s a n c t i t y a s t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o o t h e r groups w i t h i n t h e A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y .

An e x e r p t from t h e Honorary Wardens Manual, Archaeology Branch, Department of A b o r i g i n a l and I s l a n d e r s Advancement, p.38.

APPENDIX I 1

KNOWN OBSERVATIONS OF BURIAL CYLINDERS I N THE

O b s e r v a t i o n s

l . . . On t h e r o o f o r s i d e s of a l l caves c o n t a i n i n g t h e dead were i m p r i n t s of hands done i n r e d o r white o c h r e ' .

' I n one l o n e l y cave i n a v a s t sandstone r o c k , 300 f e e t i n h e i g h t and 4 m i l e i n l e n g t h , we found a bark c o f f i n c o n t a i n i n g t h e p e r f e c t s k e l e t o n o f a c h i l d , 1 2 o r 18 months o l d ' .

AND COmENTS ON THE DESECRATION CENTRAL SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS.

Comnen t s

'From some of t h e caves t h e s k u l l s had been removed, a t l e a s t one s k e l e t o n and o l d f i s h i n g n e t s taken away by white men s i n c e t h e remains were f i r s t r e p o r t e d ' . Heston 1901

Warmng S t a t ion

l . .

. .

. t h i s was a g r e a t b u r i a l p l a c e of t h e 'Years ago while mustering a t "The Tombs" one a b o r i g i n a l s : many a s k e l e t o n I saw i n caves of my stockmen g o t a b l a c k f e l l o w ' s s k u l l from t h e r e , and hand and f o o t i m p r i n t s and o t h e r one of t h e caves and threw and h i t w i t h i t (as impressions i n t h e w a l l s and r o o f s o f t h e a j o k e ) a blackboy I had with me a t t h e time.

c a v e s ; and f i s h i n g n e t s made o u t o f f i b r e o r I g o t l i t t l e good o u t o f t h a t blackboy during

b a r k ' . t h e r e s t of t h e day, and a t n i g h t he sneaked

away from camp, a s only a blackfellow can do, and next I heard o f him he was f i f t y m i l e s away'.

W . Moffatt S t a t i o n

' I n t h i s cave t h e r e were probably hundreds The s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l was removed from t h e o f s k e l e t o n s wrapped i n bark. Access was bark i n o r d e r t o t a k e a photograph.

g a i n e d by p l a c i n g a l o g up a g a i n s t t h e c l i f f

and c l i m b i n g up i t . I l l i d g e No d a t e

( "Black ' S Palace" )

'The next tomb, f i v e f e e t from t h e ground c o n t a i n e d merely a few bones and p i e c e s of b a r k c o f f i n s ' .

' . . . i n t a c t s k e l e t o n s wrapped i n bark c o f f i n s c o u l d be s e e n , p l a c e d one above t h e o t h e r ' .

'Some were pushed i n a s f a r a s f i f t e e n f e e t , t h e c a v i t y b e i n g t o o narrow t o accomodate t h e number any o t h e r way'.

' A t t h e f o o t of t h e monument human bones were strewn on a l l s i d e s exposed t o t h e r a i n , wind and b u s h f i r e s . '

I n two i n s t a n c e s , t h e e n t r a n c e s were not blocked with s t o n e s , s o t h e animals were allowed f r e e a c c e s s i n t o t h e c a v i t i e s , t h e r e t o t a k e s h e l t e r from t h e weather. So, a s t i m e went on t h e f r a i l bark c o f f i n s were trampled t o p i e c e s and t h e i r c o n t e n t s strewn about a s we found them.

'The bark coverings were made of t h e s t r i n g y bark of budge-, o r g i a n t t e e - t r e e and were so well preserved t h a t it could be fancied t h a t t h e bark had but r e c e n t l y been s t r i p p e d . The binding s t r i n g t o hold t h e bark around t h e body was a l s o i n a f a i r s t a t e of preserv- a t i o n ; it was made f r m t h e f i b r e of currajong o r b o t t l e t r e e twisted i n t o a three-ply s t r i n g and varying i n s i z e from t h a t of ordinary grocer's s t r i n g t o t h a t of small clothes-line.

The knots employad were mostly h a l f h i t c h e s and a l s o a p e c u l i a r kind of double f i g u r e 8.

The ends of t h e smaller s i z e s t r i n g s had eyes whipped i n t o then with what appeared t o be kangaroo sinews. By employing t h e s e "eyes"

it was an easy matter t o p u l l t h e s t r i n g s very t i g h t around t h e c o f f i n ; t h u s when completed a very neat bundle was c~?eated'.

l . . . a c a r e f u l examination of t h e bones revealed t h a t many of them were misplaced.

For instance, shin-bones were found l y i n g against t h e t h i g h and invariably t h e f e e t had been turned back towards t h e knees.

Moreover, t h e circumference of t h e p a r c e l was a l t o g e t h e r t o o small t o hold a human body, but j u s t t h e s i z e t h a t would encase a bark s k e l e t o n v .

'Two of t h e c o f f i n s we examined appeared t o have had special care bestowed on t h e dead occupants by t h e i r undertakers. They were covered with what appeared t o be kangaroo skin shaped l i k e a waistcoat and n e a t l y sewn with sinews of such a n animal. The f u r s i d e had been put next t o t h e remains and could s t i l l be seen adhering t o t h e bones. Also, i n one of t h e s e two c o f f i n s we noticed t h e bony remains of an oppossum and i n another those of a "corney" ( f r i l l e d neck l i z a r d ) .

. . .

'

'We f o d no v e s t i g e of any stone implements i n t h e s e tombs'.

Gaukrodger 1924 pp. 19-20 Castlevale S t a t i o n

I n c o r r e c t l y s t a t e d a s M t . E n n i s k i l l i n , Tambo area.

The inferenca of these prssaqes i s ~t the cylinders were opened, in part, t o allow inspection.

'Odd bones s c a t t e r e d about an f l o o r s of caves ' C o l l e c t o r s o r vandals have removed a l l t h e perhaps i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s was an old b u r i a l bark enclosed b u r i a l s ' .

place. . . . . I

Stark 1933

"Black ' s Palace"

'The s a n d s t o n e o u t c r o p known a s "The Tombs" ' I was s o r r y t o say I MS unable t o f i n d any had perhaps a hundred b u r i a l h o l e s , b u t now Aboriginal remains, f o r t h e s e had been removed t h e s e a r e a l l empty'. o r d e s t r o y e d ' .

' A number

...

of h o l e s s t i l l c o n t a i n e d the Geary 1939 s t i c k s on which t h e b o d i e s had been l a i d , and

by t h e l o o k o f them t h e y might have been t h e r e "The Tombs"

f o r c e n t u r i e s . Apparently, t h e same kind of wood was always used. I t i s from a t r e e which grows i n t h e neighbourhood, and is c a l l e d by t h e A b o r i g i n e s , boogooroo; i t s t i m b e r i s very hard and d u r a b l e . The b o d i e s were always wrapped i n t h e bark o f t h i s t r e e , bound t i g h t l y i n t h e u s u a l c r o u c h i n g p o s t u r e by c o r d s made from human hair; I found p o r t i o n s of t h i s c o r d i n t h e b u r i a l h o l e s . The pieces o f wood had been c u t i n t o l e n g t h s by t h e use o f f i r e . . . '

'The next s t e n c i l l e d group s u r r o u n d s a small Goddard 1942 c a v i t y u h i c h has been used a s a b u r i a l niche.

A f a i r l y w e l l p r e s e r v e d human s k e l e t o n mapped "Cathedral Cave"

up i n bark and t i e d w i t h hwmn h a i r s t r i n g was C a n a r v o n Gorge p r e v i o u s l y d i s c o v e r e d i n t h i s c a v i t y by a

member o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n . T h i s group o f To the authors knowledge this burial was s t e n c i l s d i r e c t l y s u r r o u n d s t h e b u r i a l niche by the l a t e 1950's.

...

'

'There a r e two l i l - l i l s i n r e d and two rows o f s t e n c i l l e d hands ( t h r e e l e f t and t h r e e r i g h t ) , w h i l s t d i r e c t l y above t h e n i c h e a r e t h r e e r i g h t hands. This b u r i a l n i c h e i s 1 2 f e e t above t h e f l o o r l e v e l and could o n l y be reached w i t h t h e h e l p of a c o u p l e o f s a p p l i n g s a s an improvised l a d d e r ' .

' T h i s one was a s m a l l n a t u r a l cave, without markings o f any kind 2 0 f e e t o r s o above the c r e e k bed. I t c o n t a i n e d two s k u l l s , o n e i d e n t i f i e d a s a young female and t h e o t h e r a s t h e cranium o f a n i n f a n t . . . The b a r k wrapping o r i g i n a l l y used t o e n c l o s e t h e bodies was s t i l l t h e r e a s u e r e ' a l s o t h e fragment of s t r i n g made from hair and used f o r t y i n g t h e bundle'.

' S t r e u n around t h e f l o o r o f t h e cave were many o t h e r human remains, i n c l u d i n g a number o f l e g , arm and r i b bones i n d i c a t i n g t h a t more t h a n two b o d i e s had been placed t h e r e and t h a t some of t h e s k u l l s had s i n c e been removed'.

'There a r e , i n t h e Carnarvon Ranges, innum- e r a b l e c a v e s , many which a r e reputed t o c o n t a i n l a r g e numbers of a b o r i g i n a l s k e l e t o n s . The w r i t e r h a s not s e e n any of t h e s e b u r i a l caves p e r s o n a l l y but has s e e n on s t a t i o n s , s k u l l s and s k e l e t a l remains o b t a i n e d from some of them'.

Burchester 1967 Tandcrra S t a t i o n

'Elsewhere i n t h e c e n t r a l highlands t h e s e 'One f a c t o r h a s t o be t a k e n i n t o account when c o f f i n s have been found i n d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n o f s i t e s i n t h i s w i t h rock a r t of a l l t e c h n i q u e s a l t h o u g h r e g i o n . That i s t h e x h o l e s a l e removal of s t e n c i l s and p a i n t i n g s a r e most conmon. In bark c y l i n d e r c o f f i n s from t h e r e g i o n i n a d d i t i o n , a number o f s k e l e t o n s without c o f f i n s g e n e r a l and t h e N a t i o n a l Park (Carnarvon a r e known i n a s s o c i a t i o n with a r t and t h e r e N a t i o n a l Park) i n p a r t i c u l a r .

a r e a l s o c a s e s o f c y l i n d e r c o f f i n s and s k e l e t o n s

not d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r t a l t h o u g h a r t Q u i n n e l l 1972 s i t e s e x i s t i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y ' .

C e n t r a l Highlands i n g e n e r a l .