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�IETHODS FOR
MINERAL EXI'LORATION IN
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy at
Massey University
Barry Charles Severne
1972
The application nf vegetation to mineral exploration wus !nvcstigatcd in the semi-desert mulga zo�� of West��n hu�t��li�. Acacia aneura
(mulga) dominated the vegetation and vr.J.s employed in several biogeochemical surveys to locate subsurfac0 copper and nickel mineralisation aftc1
successful orientation surveys over outcropping areas.
Copper concentrations in
�·
aneura leaf were adequate for locating cupriferous zones in the Murchison Region. In the K'_:rrajong Region,A. aneura was empJoyed to locate nickel sulphide mineralisation in a terrain of serpentinised and lateritised ultrabasics, characterised by hiGh and variable nickel levels. It was possible to distinguish sulphide ,nineral
isation from lateritic areas by consi9eration of coincident nickel and manganese biogeochemical anomalies.
A nickel-accumulating varie-::y of the shrub,
_!:!x
b.:mthus flo:'ibundus,Has discovered in the Kurrajong Region. Other
!iJb
anthus vr.rieties Here also found to accumulate nicke.l., in more southern parts of HesJ.:ernAustralia
.
Plant chemistry studies indicated thc:.t nickel vras concent:..'2ted in the leaf epidermis as a small, vTate:-:-solubltJ positively-charged co:-:.�1 "'vThe value of these nickel-accumulating shrubs in locating nickeliferous areas Has demonstrated. Prelimina:..'y attempts to detect this shrub, fror:1 the_ air, using colour infrc::-:ed photography were unsuccessful, -3.1 though the potential of colour fiJJ,, to tak _! aJvantc.ge u.i: ·i:he ano;nalous yellow colour during the summer se2son \Tas rE:al:':sed.
Three tree species. Acacia cool�ardiensis, A. resinoT.a��inea, and
A. burkittii, exhibited pronounced geobotanical rel2tionships. The first tVTo species were restricted to metabasalt and metagabbro ridges, '�ilst
�-
burkittii characterised calcareous serpentinised pyroxenites. Itwus found that a usable colour infrared image could not
.
):-,; ()lJ:-:iin' vertical .aerial photography because of the infundi::,ular grm;th-fo:::-m exhibited by this xerophytic vegetation. Howeve:� the application of this film to photogeology vBs confirmed.The possibility of using selenium as a path finder for sulphide mineralisation 'tlas investigated. A suitubly-rapid instrumental method
for the determination of selenium and tellurium was developed and a selenium accumulating tre
"'
, Ac��ia oswaldii�.
was subsequently discovered. Aknovm toxic shrub, SVTainsona canescens, nl�o ,=�ccnmulated selenium, and
the potential of this �ulcni�crc�sflora in locating sulphides has yet to l>c demonstrated.
It v1as concluded that the research embodied in this thesis has indicated the application of botanical methods to miner .1 exploration in the F.r.cmcnn Pr
'
ovince of Western Australia, and has outlined pro1,1ising:1 vr·nllf!!; for. further inve::;t il!ations.
iii
TABLE OF COHTENTS
Page llo.
1\BSTRACT 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF TABLES
111
ix
Yll
SECTION I - INTRODUCTION 1
2 4 6 6 8 1. THE OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THIS STUDY
2. DEFINITION OF BIOGEOCHEHISTRY AND GEOBOTANY 3. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
(a) Climate
(b ) Geology
(c) Geomorphology
(d) Vegetation
10 13 4. t-liSTORY OF THE MINE:KAL SEARCH IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA
5, PREVIOUS BOTANICAL PROSPECTING STUDIES
21 23 23 26 6.
(a) Indicator Plants
(b) Biogeochemical Studies FIELD
A.
B.
c.
[J • E.
F.
AND LABORATORY TECHNIQUES 29
VEGETATION STUDIES 29
SOIL STUDIES 29
GEOLOGICAL STUDIES 30
GEOCHEiHCAL A�lALYSIS QF SOIL AHD ROCKCHIP SAMPLES 3 0 GEOCHEtHCAL ANALYSIS O F PLANT SAMPLES 31 ANALYTICAL PRECISION AND ACCURACY 31
(i) Precision :n
(ii) Accuracy 32
SECTION II - COPPER AND IHCKEL IN THE MURCHISON REGION 34 1. RED BORE COPPER PROSPECT
A. INTF�ODUCTION ( i) Location (ii) Climate ( iii) Geology
(iv) Topgraphy
n. GEOI>OTANICAL STUDIES c. BIOGEOCHEMICAL STUDIES
(i) Soil Geochemistry (ii) Biogf-�ochemistry D. CONCLUSIONS
2. CORK TREE COPPER PROSPECT A. INTRODUCTION
( i) General (ii) Location (iii) Geology
(iv) Topography U. GEOBOTANICAL STUDIES C. I>IOGEOCHEMICAL STUDIES D. CONCLUSION
35 35 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 38 39 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 43 45
3. [-;l{�·�R•:ocm l'rJ:CK ro:L PROSP��CT A. lii'j'HODUC'l'ION
( i) Location (ii) Climate (iii)Geolor;y ( iv) 'l'opography B. (;�_;QBOT.\1-:ICAL �)TUDr;;:;;.i c. ;:nonr;ocru�::nrcAL ;_·.TuDrE:::;
D. CONCLU.SIUrLi
4. GEI·lt�HJ\L DI[;Cu{�.,} Oil:- HURCHI:j(lN i-U:GION
(i ) Geobotany
(ii) Giogeochemistry
SECTIOI! III-l30T fd;ICAL STUDIT!:S IN '.rHF. KURRJ\JONG REGION 1. INTRODUCTION
(i) Location (ii) Climate (iii)Geology ( i v) �-ioils
(a) Laterite
(b) Solonised Brown Soils
(c) Skeletal Soils
(d) Sandplain Soils
(v) Vegetation (vi) Previous Work
2. Q;-UE!ITf.TIOJ'l ::.TU DIE_:. ON 1JIJ'..RJHO'.r'I' NICK2:L PROSPECT A 0Ul�::.THATi "CNVIRONl"iSHT
( i)
Geology(ii) Bedrock Geochemistry (iii)Soil Geochemistry D. GEOBOTr'IHY
(i) Data Collection (ii) Data Interpretation C. iliOG�OCHB�I�TRY
(i) Data Collection (ii) Datn Interpretation D. DI.')CUSSION OF RESULTS 3. l���GIOilAL Gl:;OBOTJH.1ICJ\L :)TUDIE.r:
A. GEHEnAL Il'l'I'RODUCI'IOI�
E. i·•,'L'. CLIFFOJ D, t·i/-d\:�HALL POOL AND WILDA RA TRA VLR::>ES (i) Introduction
( ii) Geological .;etting (iii)Soil Geochemistry (iv) Geobotanical Studies
C. O'l'fllo.H 11'1'. CLIFFu D NICKt;L PHOSPECTS (i) Introduction
(ii) Geological Setting (iii):oil Geochemistry (iv) Geobotanical 0tudies D. DI�CDSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
4. P.VALUJ\'riUN OF 'rl-I�; BIOGJWCim!HCAIJ HE'l'HOD FOR NICKEL
A. D�SCRIPTION OF TEST AREAS
(i) Criteria for �rea selection
(ii) r·,t. Newman Area (iii)Clifford Creek Are�
J3. ;;AHPLING J\l.JD ANALYTICJ\ T. l'ECHNIQUJ�S ( i) l1t. N ewman .\rea
(ii) Clifford Creek Area
C. RESULTS .
( i) Ht. Newman Ar-ea
(ii) Clifford Creek Area
(iii)3tatistical analysis of Biogeochemical Data
D� DI0CUS:aON OF RIOGJ�OCI-TF;J•HCAL m;;sULTS
lf6 ''G
'f6 46 1f6
47 47 48 50 51 51 52
55 54
55 56 56 57 58 58 60 60 61 62 63 63 63 63 66 68 68 68 70
70 70 72 75 75 76 76 76 7(;
79 84 34 81+
85 86 87 91 91 91 91 92 93 93 93 93 93 95 98 99
:) • bior;r;OCH�IHCAL :iTUDI SS OJ.T AHSf.IHC A'l' AGNE\"J A. Il�TJWDUCTJON
f.. AN/\LY'l'IC/IL tviETI!OD FOH J\P.:);<tiTC
C. m·�:.JUL'l'.S
D. G�NZRAL DISCUSSION OF THE AG�E�-WILUNA AR�A
V
S��CTIOH IV - HYBi\N'J.'HU�; FLO�IBUNDU0 - A NICKEL-ACCU!v1ULATIHG
102 102
1 '..:i 103 105
GIIRLJB 107
1. j llTRODUCTIOfl 108
A. DISCOVSHY 108
B. LIT�RATURS SURVEY 108
2. EVALUA'l'ION IN THE KU l1rtAJONG RFGION 113
A. IN�HODUCTION 113
B. DISTRIBUTION - GEOBOTANY 113
(i) R80 PHOSP8CT 114
(ii) Flower survey 116
C. BIOGEOCIIEi'Hf:iTRY 117
(i) The 3erpentine Environment 118
(ii) Accumulation and Exclusion 120
(iii) Correlation Analysi::; 122
( i v) Diogeochemical Traverse 123
!.'. PROVISIONAL EVALUATION 12)
3. J';v ALu:'cTlON BY ·�i�CON N.\I.SSANCJ'� GfmBOTAt!Y 12.)
A. INTRODUCTIOJI 125
B. G�OBOTANY 125
C. BIOGJ�OCH!�ffi,S'i'HY 127
D. DISCUSSIOr 128
4. THE FUTURE ROLE FOR HYBANTHUS IN MIN�RAL EXPLO�ATION 129
,\. I!·!'l'iWDUCTION 129
L. TERNINOLOGY 129
C. ROLE OF HYBANTHUS IN THE NICKEL SEARCH 129
lX
LIS'r .OF ILLUST1\A'l,IOPS After
Frontispiece
Fig. I-1 Location of the study region in the south
�estern par� of �estcrn Australia. 5 Fig. I-2 The three provinccG of vegcta�ion and climate
of �ostern Australia. 6
Fig. I-3 Climate data for Leonora. 7
Fig. I-4 Fig. I-5 Fig. I-6 Fig. II-1
Fig. II-2 Plate :LI-1 Plate II-2 Fig. II-3 Fig; II-4
Fig. II-5
,.,.
� lg. II-6 Plate II-3 Plate II -LI-
Fig. II-7 Fig. II-8
Geological map of Jest. Australian Archacan.
Topographic m�p of Western Australia.
The vegetation Formations of Western Australia Geological sketch map of the rted Bore Copper Prospect.
. '
Belt transect across Red Bore Copper Prospect Red Bore Copper Prospect.
Panoramic view across Hed Bore Copper Prospect G:cochemical soil copper plan of Red Bore
Copper P respect.
Biogeochemical copper plan of Rsd Bore Copper r'rospec t.
Plan of Cork Tree Copper frospect.
Belt Transect across Cork �ree Prospect.
Cork Tree Copper Prospect.
Sherwood Nickel Prc 1ect.
Location plan of Sherwood Nickel Prospect.
Comparison of surface geochemical and bio
geochemical data.
8 10 14
35 36
37
43 45 lr '= -·
48 Plate II-5 Ptilotus obovatus growing on a mine dump. 51 fig.III-1 Location map of Kurrajong Region. 55 Fi�.III-2 Solonised brown soil showing profile distribu-
tion of nickel and c�lcium. 58
Plate III-2 Marriott Prospect goGsanous zone. 63 Plate III-1 View south from �arriott Prospect. 63
Fig.III-3 Geological plan of the Marriott ProspRct study
area. 64
FiG.III-4 Bedrock geochemical nickel plan of the Marriott
Frospect study area. 64
Fig.III-5 Soil geochemical nickel plan of the Marriott
Pro�pect study area. 64
Fig.III-6 Belt Transect acroos Marriott Prospect study
area. 68
Plate
Fi[S.lii-7 l''ig.III-8
X
Jiogeochemical nickeJ plan of liarriott Prospect 72 negional g •Jbo�an�s���:-�"�"�-���1, and geological tru.verses aJ� Mt.·CJ.iffol''-': ii&.•shall Pool a:1d
Plate JII-3 Vocetation associati�n on colluvial-alluvial
soils east of Marriott Prospect. 80
;;late III-L• View eaGt from '?.80' Frospect. C rig.III-9 Hypothetical classification of plant communities
with respect to lithology. 87
Fic.III-10 Plan of Mt. Ne�man Prospect showin� geophysicai anomalies, geology, �nd biogeochemical study
area. 91
itig.III-11 Clifford Creek Area, showing geology and
biogeochemical anomalies. 92
Fig.III-12 Mt. Newman bio�Dochemical plan shorying nickel
?late III-5 Plate III-6 Fig.IJI-13 Fig. IV-1
and manganese Jata. 94
View south towards the !'' ..
.
,] Gr- ·1rnine
at Agnew..Q.astr��-��i_u_m _;1-a:y:t_<?,T!.i� in a granite declivity.
Arsenic levels in soils and ��e�ophila pant L
at the Emu gol�mine,Agne�.
Distribution o� H. r���".bund�s ssp. curvifc�ius Form A over the
·,·sso• P-r'"o-s:Pec f. · - ... --
102
103 114 Plate IV -1
l!_.
flori l:�y.ndus, with its charact8ristic yellow--green colour,on the •880' Prospect. 115 Plate IV-2 H. flo�ibunduG in its typical habit�t, in the
'Shade o
f'ci
'- :· :--,:)
( A • �., y ...,. , • � �. ' • 11 5Plate IV -5 Frontal view of flcw•r::r of
H.
_Q<2
rJ.
.��l!:_d
us
116Plate IV-6 �ide view of flower of H.flnr�bvndus 116 fig. IV-2
Fi13. IV-3
f'ir;. IV -L•
Plate IV-3 Plate IV -L•
Fi�. V-1
... ---- � . ·- ---
'I'hc flower colour of H . floribundu.s -'3.S a
function of the soil nickel e:·o.;cen-trntion, 117 Comparison of nickel and co�alt values in
g. !_l9_d.�_u_EJ;du_� rd.th other shrub sped.eG. 121 Biogcochcmical/geochemical traverse at ]ild��a
using
!!• _f):_<?_:r:_:i.?ul2.��UE•
123H. flor�.b_t!_1_1dur. ssp. curvif- ·,"' Form A. 125 H. floribuncJu.G sspfl curvifoli·. � Form B.
Inverse nickel-ca}.c:i .. _.,1 .:· '!lo.-�:·.v,·!sll�.p in lea'ter
-.C l...':' .f"1 n't";hllY'1.�11R ..
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TRble No.
After Page No.
III-1 Analytical results for plant samplee obtained
during orientation study over Marriott Prospect 70 III-2 Averaged elemental data for Acacia aneura from
several study areas. 97
IV-1 Significant correlation coefficients for soil
metal-flower morphology relationships. 117 IV-2 Elemental concentrations in accuoulator plants
compared with valu8s in H. floribundus. 12 0 IV-3 Mean elemental concentrations in H. floribundus
and its substrate. 118
IV-4 Comparative data for elemental concentrations in
three nickel-accumulating plants. 121 IV-5 Calcium
/
magnesium ratios in the aerial parts ofsome plant. families. 12 2
IV-6 Significant correlations between pairs of elements among organs of H. floribundu� and for plant-soil
relationships.- 12 3
IV-7 �lean elemental concentrations in Hybanthus varieties varieties and their substrate. 12 6 IV-1 Nickel and calcium concentrations in several organs
organs of
