QUT GP P
628.530994 1
VOLUME 2. No. 3
SEPTEMBER. 1968
Multicione*—
Most Durable Dust Collector Ever Made!
Western Precipitation Multicione* dust collectors process more than half a billion cubic feet of gas every minute. Over 5,000 Multicione* systems are in operation—
more than all other makes combined.
The standard WP nine-inch diameter tube incorporates high efficiency, low maintenance and high gas capacity, with flexibility in installation and economy of operation. Our cast tubes and vanes consistently outlast their lightweight rivals, a fact which has been proved by users since we pioneered the small-diameter, multiple-tube centrifugal design 40 years ago.
Call a Western Precipitation engineer to advise on your gas or air cleaning problem.
He still believes that an old-fashioned deep breath should be good for you.
The aim of the Society is to conserve clean air in Australia and New Zealand.
EDITOR:
Graham J. Cleary
ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
E. E. Finsten R. S. Williams H. W. Voss The Journal of the Clean Air Society of Australia
& New Zealand Published Quarterly
SUBSCRIPTION:
75c single copy
$2.50 per year
The Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand
PRESIDENT:
Mr. J. G. Schroder
SECRETARY:
Dr. G. J. Cleary P.O. Box 3.1, George St. North Post Office Sydney
2001 Australia
Telephone: 27.8541
Wholly set up and printed by The Sydney & Melbourne Publishing Co. Pty. Ltd.. 29 Alberta Street,
Sydney, 2000. Tel. 61-4369
Vol. 2, No. 3
TECHNICAL PAPERS
SEPTEMBER, 1968
Some Effluent Problems of Our A f f l u e n t Society . . 3
By N. Y. Kirov
Chemistry of Formation of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons:
Pyrene, Fluoranthene, 1, 2 Benzanthracene,
Chrysene and Triphenylene 7
By Graham J. Cleary
Air Pollution Measurements in A u s t r a l i a — A Survey
of Current Methods and Developments . . 10
By W. Howard Cock
O i l F u e l a n d C l e a n A i r i n A u s t r a l i a 1 4 By H. R. Goode
The Role of the Clean A i r Society in the Discipline
of A i r Pollution 20
By Graham J. Cleary
FEATURES
Victorian Branch News 2 News from the NSW Branch 2
The International Union of A i r Pollution Prevention
Associations 2 International Union Newsletter 10
Third Clean A i r Conference, M a y , 1969 13 Auckland A i r Pollution Symposium 19 Book Review: " A i r Pollution" 20
People 24
A significant problem facing those of us who are concerned with present and particularly with possible future air pollution levels is a general attitude of apathy. Because we do not have the air pollution
levels which are experienced in Los Angeles or in many cities in the Old World, many people express the view that "it won't happen here".
This complacency can be found, to some extent at least, in virtually all levels in the community.
The solution to the problem must lie in education. The Society could show the way by a vigorous public relations drive aimed at the general public. Also it might not be inappropriate to suggest that more education on air pollution matters be offered at formal levels. The basic principles involved could be included in the now-rather-general scope of the secondary schools' science syllabus. At tertiary level the subject could be introduced to many more undergraduate students, particularly in disciplines such as chemical engineering, industrial science and civil engineering.
Surely we do not have to rely upon the occurrence of a serious air pollution episode to engender more public awareness.
The International Union of Air Pollution
Prevention Associations
MAJOR ACTIVITIES OF YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1967 First General International Conference
The major event of the year for the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations was, without question, the International Clean Air Congress and Exhibition (First General International Conference) held in London during the period October 4-7, 1966. The Congress attracted 1,250 registrants from 30 nations around the world. It was a quality event, both from the point of view of the technical programme and of sup- porting social activities. The National Society for Clean Air of the United Kingdom is to be highly commended, and certainly earned the everlasting gratitude of the young International Union, for developing and conducting such an outstanding activity in such a short period of time.
London Meeting of Executive Committee
The Executive Committee of the International Union met in London on Oelober 3, 1966, Sir Alan Wilson presiding and Mr. Arnold March serving as secretary. All nieinbers of the Executive Committee were in at- tendance. Because of limited funding
of some of the national associations and high cost of transportation and subsistence, this attendance is itself an indication of the enthusiasm of the member associations for the Inter- national Union.
The meeting of the Executive Com- mittee was reported in the official minutes of the meeting which were distributed by the First Secretary. In addition, the Permanent Delegate of A.P.C.A. to the International Union reported, on the meeting in the December, 1966, issue of the Journal of the Air Pollution Control Associ- ation. That report is filed in the per- manent records of the International Union.
(To be continued in future issues)
NEWS FROM THE NSW BRANCH
A GENERAL meeting of the N.S.W.
Branch was held at the Australian Coal Industry Research Laboratories, North Ryde, on August 20, 1968. At this meeting Mr. K. Sullivan gave a talk entitled "Some aspects of com- bustion research carried out by Aus- tralian Coal Industries Research Laboratories Ltd. in its relation to clean air". In his talk Mr. Sullivan outlined the work carried out in the laboratories over a number of years, particularly in the fields of boiler and ceramic kiln combustion, where sig- nificant advances towards air pollu- tion control had been achieved. Fol- lowing tin's talk the members were conducted on a tour of the laboratories
to inspect the various facilities avail- able.
The next meeting of the Branch will be held in the Shell Theatrette, Carrington Street, Sydney, on Novem- ber 19, 1968. At this meeting Mr.
R. P. Murphy, Principal Air Pollution Control Engineer of the N.S.W. De- partment of Health, will speak on the current work of the Air Pollution Control Branch in relation to air pollution problems in New South Wales.
Work on the compilation of a Hand- book of Air Pollution has been com- menced by a sub-committee set up by the Branch. This work will be carried out in conjunction with the Victorian
Branch.
VICTORIAN BRANCH NEWS
T H E following meetings were held during the quarter:
Tuesday, July 9, at the I.C.I.A.N.Z.
Theatre. Associate Professor N. Y.
Kirov delivered a paper entitled
"The Effluent Problems of our Affluent Society".
Tuesday, September 10, at the Ian Clunies Ross Science Centre. Mr.
Alan Collyer of H. P. Gregory and Co. Pty. Ltd., delivered a paper on
"The Application of Dust Collectors in Industry".
The Annual Dinner of the Victorian Gioup was held on Tuesday, August
13, at the Science Centre and was attended by 75 members and guests.
The Speaker of Honour was Professor S. Siemon, and the Guests of Honour were Mr. J. Schroeder, Federal Presi- dent, Dr. G. Cleary, Federal Secretary, and Mr. K. Sullivan, President N.S.W.
Branch.
Addresses were given by the Branch President, Mr. H. Hartmann, and Branch Secretary, Dr. W. Strauss, at the Annual Conference of the Health Inspectors' Association of Victoria, August 26 to 30, held at the National Herbarium.
The Secretary, Dr. W. Strauss, has departed for a visit to the United States until December, where he will be attached to the Westinghouse Cor- poration advising on aspects of air pollution research.
The Annual General Meeting of the Branch will be held at 5.30 p.m. at the I.C.I.A.N.Z. Theatrette on November 19. The Meeting will be followed by a lecture on "Town Planning with Regard to Air Pollution", by Mr. H.
McCorkell.
September, 1968 CLEAN AIR
2
Some effluent problems of our affluent society
By N. Y. Kirov,* Associate Professor and Head, Department of Fuel Technology, The University of New South Wales.
WE live in a jet age of escalations—
the atomic explosion, the popu- lation explosion, the education ex- plosion, the computer explosion, the starvation explosion, and . . . the garbage explosion, are becoming more and more a part of our everyday life.
With everything growing at an ever-increasing rate, this has also become an age of specialists.
Now a specialist has been defined as one who "knows more and more about less and less"; and a super- specialist would thus be expected to know just about "everything about nothing"!
J do not propose to talk to you as a specialist, but shall consider the broad area of control of environmental pollution; we shall not discuss just the Clean Air Society, but the real need for a Clean Society. Land, air and water pollution problems are closely interrelated and are indivisible.
They have become so serious in re- cent years that it has been necessary to introduce legislation for the pro- tection of our health and environment against such contaminations.
Environmental engineering deals with all aspects of public health and comfort, noise and odour control, sewage disposal, water purification and supply, disposal of solid wastes and domestic refuse, traffic flow and pre- vention of land, air and water pollu-
tion; also the cost and economics of controlling t h e s e problems.
The expenditure involved is consider- able but it is gradually being realised that this is a cost which must be borne as part of our modern way of living;
economic considerations must be secondary to the protection of the health and comfort of the citizens.
The Problem of City Growth
The modern large city has become in a relatively short time the most characteristic form of modern social life. It is difficult to imagine, for example, that at the end of the 18th century, there were only 22 cities in.
the world with a population of over 100,000. For example, ancient Rome, at the height of its power, barely num- bered 350,000 inhabitants.
* Presented to the May, 1968, meeting of the Victorian branch of the society.
Today there are many large cities, each with a population of over one million, and by 1975 it is estimated that there will be at least 100 cities with a population in excess of one million.
Australia is largely a city-dwelling nation: 78 per cent, of the population Jives in cities, half of the total popula- tion living in the seven capital cities (nearly one-quarter in Sydney); it is reliably forecast that by the end of the century Sydney's population will have exceeded five million.
It has been said that "From the top of the Australia Square Tower on a clear day you can actually see an area around you that contains about one- quarter of Australia's total popula- tion!"
The Need for Planning
Yet few cities are the result of plan- ning (e.g., Canberra); most of them
"just grew up like Topsie".
Preoccupation with many of the problems arising from this rapid city growth on a day to day basis has allowed little time for comprehensive and forward planning. This has re- sulted in piecemeal developments, which do not provide an overall solu- tion and often create new problems, or are of a nature likely to provide the
"slums of the future".
To quote Harry Seidler, well-known Sydney architect (see Credit Union Quest, May, 1968):
"Australia is, literally, a decadent backwash out of the stream of plan- ning. Nothing much is happening here to plan for the future, and a mess is accumulating, towards disaster. What is happening is to do with the per- missiveness of our free-enterprise society, where the building and plan- ning laws say only what you can't do and do not positively say what you must do.
"Part of the problem is that local government, which is not fitted for the job, has such a vital part in planning.
You hand planning over to the local butcher and baker on the Council, who just can't do a proper job of it.
Real estate agents have too much power in local affairs . . .
". . . Planning should be on a federal level—at the top where the
money and taxing power and legisla- tive authority is greatest."
And again in a recent ABC "Guest of Honour" programme (June 9,
1968), the English town planner Mr.
E. H. Doubleday said:
"Australia is ripe for regional plan- ning on a grand scale . . . but today's town planning means much more than deciding which areas should be set aside for housing, industries, shops or recreation.
"It means making the most of the economic, physical and social re- sources not only of the local com- munity but of the whole nation."
There is thus not only a need for long-range planning on a compre- hensive basis but such planning should also be on the highest possible level.
Four Major Problems of Rapid City Growth
Housing, transport facilities, water supply and disposal of wastes are four major problems arising from this rapid growth of our cities.
It is with the last problem that we shall be primarily concerned.
Legislation to control air and water (plus land) pollution has highlighted the need for hygienic, economic and aesthetic methods for collection and disposal of solid wastes.
The "effluent explosion" is essenti- ally a problem of modern affluent society.
But, we were also reminded at the First Refuse Disposal Conference last August by Professor Baxter that it is also a very old problem.: "Archaeolo- gists," he said, "would all be out of business if civilisation after civilisation had not been buried in its own gar- bage!"
Inscribed on a signpost near the outer limits of ancient Rome, we are told, was this warning:
"Take your refuse further or you will be fined."
However, in a modern society we can no longer take it "further" but have to cope and dispose of it in our midst . . . and "without fouling our own nest!"
Air Pollution
We have been polluting our air systematically since the beginning of the industrial revolution, and each year the pollution grows worse.
Legislation for the control of air pollution in N.S.W. existed from 1902, but because of the vague public nuisance clauses it contained, imple- mentation was difficult.
Such legislation was unsuccessful in controlling the development of an air
CLEAN AIR—September, 1968 3
pollution problem until the Clean Air Act, 1961-65 was introduced. This Act provides for the preparation of Regulations setting a maximum allow- able limit of emissions of various pollutants into the atmosphere.
Now what are these pollutants? It has been estimated that in the U.S.A.
air pollutants of various kinds total approximately 130,000,000 tons/year.
Of these 13,000,000 or 10 per cent, only is represented by particulate matter (fly ash and dust), the rest being CO, S and N oxides, hydro- carbons and other gases and vapours.
CO is said to represent about half of this total. The motor car is blamed for nearly three-quarters (c. 72-73 per cent.) of the total pollution.
It is interesting to note here that measurements in Sydney by the N.S.W.
Department of Public Health showed a significant drop in air pollution during the recent (July, 1968) petrol strike. For example, in a number of streets surveyed, the usual concentra- tion of CO in the atmosphere ranged
between 46 and 70 p.p.m., with an average of 53 p.p.m., but during the fuel shortage, the average recorded from 12 readings was only 24 p.p.m.
In some countries 50 p.p.m. of carbon monoxide is stipulated as the maxi- mum allowable average concentration for an eight-hour working day.
The Problem of the Motor Car
A car achieves maximum power with an air/fuel ratio of approximately 12.5:1 (theoretical combustion gives a ratio of 15:1) and hence during the driving cycle complete combustion of the fuel does not occur. This results in the emission of significant amounts of various products of incomplete combustion.
These include a quantity of poly- cyclic hydrocarbons (e.g., pyrene, 3,4 benzopyrene, 1,12 benzoperylene and anthranthrene); maximum emission of these impurities is during acceleration and deceleration, e.g. in erratic city traffic. Under deceleration, up to 60 per cent, of the fuel may pass through the cylinders unburned!
Investigations in Sydney*, based on the characteristic ratios of these con- stitutents in the air have revealed that the main source of polycyclic hydro- carbons in the air of Sydney for the summer months December to April is from automobile exhaust products;
from June to September the dominant source was from coal, and for the re- mainder of the year the contributions from both sources were equal.
* (See G. Geary, this journal, June, 1967).
Let us examine a little further the present and future position in Sydney.
The present numbers of passenger cars registered in the County of Cumberland, is about 714,000. The anticipated growth over the next 10 years is 50 to 70 per cent., i.e., within less than a decade there will be over one million cars.
The area of the County of Cumber- land is 1,630 square miles (671 square miles for the Metropolis of Sydney which itself has now 697,000 cars). This area is similar to that of the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District (given as about 1,600 square miles). It is estimated (by Dr. Geary, Clean Air, June, 1967), that over half a million tons of gaseous pollutants are discharged in the air per annum from the motor cars in the County of Cumberland. By weight, this is almost as much as all the garbage and solid wastes generated by the 21 million population of the County! (It is equivalent to 1¼ lb/person/day!)
The annual loss of tyre rubber is estimated to represent 1,283,000 lb (= 573 tons) of tyre dust abraded.
This dust, too, contains small quanti- ties of polycyclic hydrocarbons (some carcinogenic).
Recently, it was pointed out in Nature (Dr. Bowen, Reading Uni- versity) that traffic yellow lines which contain chromate as their pigment are another source of pollutants which may have to be considered owing to chromate dust which may be released into the atmosphere as such lines be- come eroded. Such dust inflames the tissues of the nose and throat, but concentration is likely to be very low.
The first "smogs" in Los Angeles were experienced in 1942; by 1965 a condition of "smog" was said to exist on 240 days in the year. Estimates show that before the year 2000, Sydney could have the equivalent volume of exhaust products that Los Angeles had in 1942.
It is obvious that something has to be done about this problem; and some- thing is being done. Research and studies are being undertaken into vehicular exhausts and their control;
by improved designs of engine, carbu- rettor, manifold and crankcase and by the provision of direct-fired or catalytic afterburners. By mid-1964 four ex- haust control devices were approved by California's authorities, and their use became mandatory beginning with the 1966 model cars registered in the State. Thus although the extent of the problem is not fully understood, it has been realised that automobile
emissions constitute a threat to health which will intensify unless preventive steps are taken.
For example, between 1930 and 1960, the number of deaths from one respiratory disease alone in the U.S.A.
increased by 800 per cent. (President Johnson). Again in the U.S.A., air pollution is c o s t i n g more than
$11,000 million a year in economic damages. This amounts to nearly $30 a year for every man, woman and child in the nation; expenditure on air pollution control, on the other hand, is less than 20 cents a year per citizen.
It is clear, however, that not enough is being done. We could only conclude that the motor vehicle still remains one of the major growing and un- controlled sources of air pollution io which a solution has yet to be found.
The Problem of Solid Wastes
This problem of the disposal of the wastes of our afllucncc (garbage has been described as the "reproach of our affluence") is one of vital importance to the health, and welfare of the com- munity; it is a problem which is caus- ing world-wide concern, and one of the municipal services which has become increasingly more costly and more difficult to administer. Let us analyse some of the underlying causes of the problem:
1. Population increase a n d rapid growth of urban populations—
cities.
2. Rising standards of living which characterise our modern indus- trialised society.
3. Growth of the packaging industry and new marketing techniques based on the economic philosophy
"buy, use and discard".
4. Need for the collection and dis- posal of ever-increasing quantities of refuse and waste materials.
We are faced today not only with a rapid growth in population but also with an increase in the refuse gene- rated per head of population" (in U.S.A., 4½-5; in Australia, about 1½ to 2 lb/head/day). In Sydney alone disposal of this refuse is costing councils over $7 million. The City of Sydney, for example, spends $1.1 million for garbage disposal and $1.3 million for cleaning its streets; even though some of us may think that they are not quite as clean as we would like to see them!
5. The constantly changing nature of refuse: The present tendency is towards an increase in volume, re- duction in moisture, greater paper content and higher heating value, i.e.—it is becoming a better fuel 4
to burn and less suitable for com- posting purposes.
6. On the other hand, city transport is becoming more complex and slower (because of increase in density), as well as more costly.
Collection and transportation al- ready claim the major part of the total cost of disposal (over 70 per cent.).
7. Dumping and landfill are still the cheapest and m o s t favoured method of disposal but vacant land for suitable disposal sites near centres of population is becoming more difficult to find and more expensive, and clean cover material more difficult to obtain.
It may also be argued that such sites as are available should be used with care and reserved for non- combustible matter and residue from incineration in order to prolong their limited life, particularly if they are close to population centres!
The problem of wastes disposal therefore is becoming progressively more difficult and more costly be- cause:
(a) there is more and more refuse for disposal, and
(b) fewer and fewer available sites for its disposal.
An estimate of Sydney's future prob- lem is summarised in Table I.
Some Associated Problems
Other problems associated with the disposal of solid wastes are:
1. Lack of basic factual data for plan- ning on the nature and quantities
of refuse to be handled and dis- posed of. There is a need for re- search and surveys in order to evaluate the physical and chemical characteristics; volume and general trends in the production of refuse.
2. Fragmentation of disposal opera- tions among many small councils.
Few councils possess the resources necessary to cope efficiently with the problem. For example, Sydney
with a population of 21 million is divided and administered by 35 municipalities and four shire councils.
3. A general failure in forward think- ing and planning. Efficient and economic disposal of the solid wastes of our cities requires plan- ning, which is comprehensive and long-range in its concepts. Despite many obstacles the regional ap- proach must gain ground. It has already done so in many overseas countries.
In addition, in planning for the dis- posal of refuse and other solid wastes, consideration must be given to the following:
(i) Air pollution; (ii) water pollu- tion; (iii) land pollution; (iv) health;
(v) fire safety; (vi) traffic flow;
(vii) noise; (viii) economics;
(ix) security: "On site" supervision and disposal of confidential, quaran- tined, and other similar materials.
Methods of Disposal of Solid City Wastes
There is an aversion to spending money on materials discarded as worthless, hence the first criterion that is adopted for selecting a method of refuse disposal is that it be inexpen- sive. Crude and primitive disposal methods, however, can no longer be tolerated in a modern society.
Consideration has been given to such methods as:
(a) Barging out to sea (after pulveris- ing, compaction, etc.). This has proved impracticable and un- economic and often results in water pollution and contamination of beaches and foreshores.
(b) Compacting and hauling by trucks or trains on longer runs to suit- able sites: this is costly.
(c) Use of open dumps: unhygienic and unsightly, and results in smoke, smell, vermin (flies, rats, cockroaches) nuisances.
TABLE I
Sydney's Future Refuse Disposal Problem
(d) Destruction by nuclear energy or
"shooting it into space": far- fetched and expensive.
The choice, in fact, narrows down to such proven techniques as—
(i) Composting, (ii) controlled tip- ping, and (iii) incineration,
or of combinations of these.
(i) Composting: It is sometimes claimed that "domestic refuse is not waste and should be reclaimed for soil enrichment and rejuvenation.".
The method is based on biological conversion by suitable organisms of the organic part of the refuse, a part which in modern refuse is tending to decrease.
Presorting and pulverising of the raw refuse and the production of a soil ''conditioner" which is bulky and low grade, low density and limited value, and is difficult to dispose, have re- duced the popularity of this method.
Canterbury Council's experiment in 1954, in which some 25 per cent, of the refuse was treated in a composting plant proved successful in producing a soil conditioner, but even so the project had ultimately to be abandoned owing to the inability to dispose of this material commercially. In some parts of the world, e.g. France and New Zealand, composting of selected waste materials as part of a compre- hensive scheme for the disposal of solid wastes is successfully practised.
The adoption of such methods is very much dependent on local conditions as the method at its best offers only a partial solution for the disposal of a small fraction of the total refuse.
(ii) Sanitary Tipping and Controlled Landfill is the most widely practised method. It involves systematic build- ing of the site by controlled deposition, good compaction and daily cover. It must be well-planned and engineered if it is not to create undesirable en- vironmental effects. Often it would benefit the community by reclaiming and improving valuable land. Good examples of this can be seen in New York and Chicago. Tipping standards achieved by different local authorities may vary tremendously. Near city areas the life of available sites is be- coming very limited.
(iii) Incineration: In the large cities of the world this has become the pre- ferred method for disposal of city solid wastes. The main reasons for this are:
( a) A whole new technology has been developed in, the last 10 years or so, particularly in W e s t e r n Europe,
(b) Although at present it is not the cheapest method, it may well be- come so—the gap is narrowing.
CLEAN AIR—September, 1968
5
Year
Population (millions) Refuse g e n e r a t e d —
Ib/person/day tons/person/year
(i) By weight, million tons/year (ii) By volume, million cubic yards/year Density, lb/cubic yard (partly compressed) Cubic y a r d / t o n
Increase (i) by w e i g h t (ii) by volume
1968 2.5
1.6 0.26 0.65 3.91 3 7 4
6
2 0 0 0 5
4.16 0.68 3.38 2 7 . 0 2 8 0
8 5.2 fold 6.9 fold
(c) It meets m o d e r n hygienic, nuisance-free requirements.
(d) Incinerators are centrally located, often, in good residential areas, to reduce cost of haul.
(e) They are continuously operated and are of large capacity (500-
1,500 tons/day).
(f) They are run on a city or regional basis.
(g) Effective air pollution control is the key to successful design and operation, of city incinerators.
This often means expensive gas cleaning, such as electrostatic pre- cipitators, tall chimneys (300 to 600 ft.) and sophisticated instru- mentation, including even short- circuit T.V. systems to view the fire.
(h) Modern grates for continuous burning of wet and low grade fuels have been successfully de- veloped.* Mild agitation and exposure of material to combus- tion air. Complete combustion—
inert residue. Low excess air.
Attempts are sometimes made to utilise the heat generated by incinera- tors burning solid wastes. It must be remembered, however, that refuse is not a good fuel: it has a high moisture, low c.v. and is constantly varying in quality.
This aspect of heat utilisation should be viewed in its proper context. Local Councils are not in business to raise steam or power for industry, and refuse disposal is a community service which must be paid for. It is a service that must be considered in terms of convenience and public health and in the overall scheme of city develop- ments.
The Problem of "On Site" Incineration The design and performance of small incinerators in departmental stores and home-unit blocks is at pre- sent deficient in many ways. None of the designs of flue-fed incinerators tested to date have been found to comply with the Regulations under the N.S.W. Clean Air Act. It is evident that at the rate at which such in- cinerator units are being installed, particularly in the high-density areas of large cities, they would become, unless properly controlled, a serious source of air pollution.
A recent survey in. the Sydney Muni- cipalities of Waverley and Woollahra,
* This aspect has been more f u l l y discussed in an earlier article, see Kirov, "Clean A i r " , 1968, March,
pp. 5-11.
for example, indicated that there were 1,033 installed incinerators in these two areas alone.
Examples from other large cities of the world, notably New York and Los Angeles, show that this problem has already become a serious one there and legislation for the control of "on site" incinerators and for upgrading their standards of design and opera- tion are already being introduced in, the U.S.A.
Recently, the Department of Public Health set up a Committee to investi- gate incineration practices and to set standards of design for incinerators consuming less than one ton of refuse per hour. Units of this size do not come under the classification of
"Scheduled premises" u n d e r the N.S.W. Clean Air Act and have to be generally approved by Local Councils.
The drawing up of such standards should therefore assist both councils and manufacturers in the installation of incinerators which could satisfac- torily control the emission of air pollutants.
Unfortunately, the Committee is handicapped by the lack of actual data and experimental results concerning the performance of existing units, or of the modifications necessary to be incorporated in such designs so that they would comply with the require- ments of the Clean Air Act.
To assist in this matter the Depart- ment of Fuel Technology at the Uni- versity of New South Wales has undertaken a research project along such lines. The work involves the testing of existing units and general evaluation of the problem, the design and operation of experimental com- bustion and gas cleaning equipment and the obtaining of data for design and operating standards in compliance with the Clean Air Act. This project has the active support of the Depart- ment of Public Health and is financi- ally assisted by funds from the Refuse Disposal Conference and the Clean Air Society. The active participation in this project of firms concerned with the manufacture of such equipment is being encouraged.
Concluding Remarks
Clearly there is a need for scientific and engineering investigations into the nature of the processes concerned and the scientific methods for dealing with the problems of land, air and water pollutions and with the disposal of solid domestic and trade wastes—all of which affect our health and our environment.
In October, 1965, President John- son signed the Solid Wastes Disposal Act. This Act authorised the expendi- ture of a research and technical assist- ance programme of $92 million over the period 1966-69.
At the University of N.S.W., in the School of Chemical Engineering, for several years now we have been active in, various fields of environmental con- trol engineering. Last August we held the first Refuse Disposal Conference and currently we are busy organising jointly with the Clean Air Society the third Clean Air Conference. Next year, it is planned to introduce a formal M.App.Sci. degree course in Pollution Control Engineering.
Education and public awareness of the problem are the first steps in the right direction. It is in these that pro- fessional societies and individual mem- bers can play a most important part.
To quote Miss Rachael Carson (the well-known U.S. biologist and writer, b. 1907) who once wrote:
"In biological history, no organism has survived long if its environment became in some way unfit for it, but no organism before man has de- liberately polluted its own environ- ment."
We are rapidly approaching a point beyond which we cannot afford to continue to neglect such problems for very much longer. The solution of these problems requires imaginative thought and courageous action. This is a major engineering and planning problem, one for which a plan for im- mediate and long term action is needed NOW, and for the solution of which our society and members have an important part to play.
September, 1968—CLEAN AIR
W. HOWARD COCK
and ASSOCIATES Pty. Ltd.
Consulting Chemists and Engineers
Air Pollution Control and Environ- mental Studies, Design and Specifi- cations for Dust and Fume Collection, Acceptance Testing of Newly Installed Plants, Dust and Fume Collector Efficiency Tests, Dust and Toxic Vapours in Air Determinations, etc.
151 NORTHERNROAD HEIDELBERG WEST
VICTORIA 3081 Phone: 45 4506
CHEMISTRY OF FORMATION OF POLYCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS: PYRENE, FLUORANTHENE, 1, 2 BENZANTHRACENE, CHRYSENE AND TRIPHENYLENE
By Graham J. G e a r y , Ph.D., Secretary, Clean A i r Society of A u s t r a l i a and New Zealand.
Abstract: Mechanisms are suggested for the formation of the hydrocarbons pyrene, fluoranthene, 1, 2 benzanthracene, chrysene and triphenylene.
IN a previous paper1 the use of bond dissociation engines to predict the radicals formed under the pyrolysis of simple alkyl and alkenyl benzenes was demonstrated. This technique was ex- tended to enable predictions to be made of the mode of formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
A series of experiments was planned by Badger and co-workers to verify these predictions. Single benzenoid rings, rings with saturated side chains, with unsaturated side chains and with associated alicyclic rings were pyro- lysed at temperatures of up to 700 deg. Cent.
The results of these and associated studies have enabled firm mechanisms to be postulated for the formation of individual polycyclic hydrocarbons.
The formation of 3, 4 benzopyrene was cited previously.1 In this paper the formation of pyrene, fluoranthene, 1, 2 benzanthracene, chrysene and tri- phenylene will be considered.
Pyrene
Reaction of two C6 — C2 units is thought to account for a substantial amount of the p y r e n e formed.
Equation 1 was suggested from studies of the pyrolysis of buta — 1, 3 — diene2 while Equation 2 was suggested by the pyrolysis of 3 — vinyl cyclo- -exene.3 In the l a t t e r instance, analysis of the tar formed as a result of the pyrolysis yielded 1.31 per cent, by weight of pyrene. Both 1, 2 benzopyrene and 3, 4 benzopyrene were found a m o n g the products (0.31 per cent, and 0.48 per cent, re- spectively) which reinforced, the earlier conclusion4 that tars having a high yield of pyrene also contain relatively large amounts of 3, 4 benzopyrene.
The intermediate formed by dimerisa- tion of two vinyl cyclohexene radicals could presumably undergo dehydro- genation to pyrene or reaction with a four-carbon unit, followed by dehydro- genation to give 3, 4 benzopyrene.
The pyrolysis of [aC14] ethyl-
benzene has afforded further informa- tion on the possible mechanisms.5 Equation 1 with styrene precursor would give two labelled carbon atoms while Equation 2 if it involved a C — C unit then aC — C — C — C unit prior to vinyl cyclohexene would
give pyrene having eight labelled carbon atoms. The number of labelled carbon atoms found, 2.4 and 2.65 in two analyses indicated that both these mechanisms or some variation of them rnay occur, although Equation 1 is mo:c strongly favoured.
CLEAN AIR—September, /966' 7
Fluoranthene
The phenylation of naphthalene would be expected to yield mainly 1 — phenylnapthalene. It has also been shown experimentally that 1 — phenylnapthalene yields fluoranthene by cyclodehydrogenation6 so that the most likely route to fluoranthene is thought to occur through this overall mechanism, Equation 3.
Interaction of two C6 —C2 units (Equation 4) or of a C6 — C3 and a C6 — C1 unit (Equation 5) followed by cyclodehydrogenation also appears feasible.3
Fluoranthene has also been pro- duced experimentally by the reaction of butadiene with either acenaphthy- lene7 (Equation 6) or acenaphthene8
(Equation 7 ) . As acenaphthene was found, in particulate matter from atmospheric samples9 it is not unlikely that acenaphthylene was also present.
Moreover, it is considered that these compounds are not generally reported because they are volatile and have a relatively unspecific U.V. spectra so that their general absence in reporting is not conclusive evidence that they do not exist. Indeed, it seems quite possible that some fluoranthene is pro- duced by the mechanisms suggested by Equations 6 and 7.
1, 2 Benzanthracene
The high yield, 4.6 per cent., of 1, 2 benzanthracene obtained in the tar from the pyrolysis of indene at 700 deg. Cent, suggested possible modes of formation based on the fission of the 1, 8 or 1, 2 bonds in the indene molecule.10 These bonds have the lowest dissociation energy of about 90 k cal/mole in each case and their rupture would leave C1 — C6 — C2, C6 — C3 or C6 — C2 radicals. The reaction of a C1 — C6 — C2 unit and a C6 — C3 unit (Equation 8) or of two C1 — C6 — C2 units (Equation 9) would then give 1, 2 benzan- thracene.
Interaction of C6 — C4 and C6 — C2 fragments (Equations 10, 11 and
12) would also appear to be feasible.1'
Chrysene
Pyrolysis of indene vapour at 700 deg. Cent, gave a very high yield (31.7 per cent.) in the resulting tar.10
As previously stated in the discussion of 1, 2 benzanthracene, the most likely radicals formed from indene are
C1 — C6 — C2, C6 — C3 and C6 — C2. Thus interaction of two C6 — C3 units (Equations 13, 14) or two C1 — C6 — C2 units (Equations 15,
16) would give chrysene.
8 September, 1968—CLEAN AIR
INTERNATIONAL UNION NEWSLETTER
various categories. A Working Party to examine these problems and to make recommendations was set up some years ago, but it is only recently that they have been able to complete what proved to be a lengthy and difficult task. However their Report was published recently and it is expected that there will shortly be regulations issued by the Government, under the Act, to cover procedures, measurement methods, and standards.
It should be noted that the measure- ments are to be taken of the gases
in the stack itself, and that the standards will be expessed in terms of pounds per hour of grit and dust emitted in a period of normal opera- tion. Standards are set higher for larger plants than they are for small, and range from 0.2 to 1.0 per cent, of the fuel burned per hour according to the nature of the fuel and the category of the plant.
Furnaces posed more difficult problems because of their large variety and the different kinds of material that are treated and the Working Party was unable to put forward a compre- hensive set of proposals. The Report is published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, but may also be obtained from the NSCA at 50 cents, post free.
Extracts from International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Association's News-
letter, January, 1968.
National Society for Clean Air, Great Britain
Motor Vehicle Pollution
The National Society for Clean Air has published a new report by its technical committee entitled, "Air Pollution from Road Vehicles". It is a 44 page review of the problem in Great Britain and it deals separately with gasoline engine vehicles as well as diesel engine vehicles. It is avail- able from the Society for a cost of 50 cents.
Grit and Dust Pollution
The British Clean Air Act, 1956, included provisions for minimising grit and dust emissions from industrial plant. One section of the Act empowers the local authorities who administer it to require measurements of grit and dust from furnaces burning pulverised fuel, and others burning other solid fuel or waste at a rate of one ton an hour or more. Before this could be operated it was necessary to specify standard methods for making such measurements and to stipulate the acceptable upper limits of the grit and dust burden of stack gasses in
AIR POLLUTION MEASUREMENTS IN AUSTRALIA-A SURVEY OF CURRENT METHODS AND DEVELOPMENTS
By W. Howard Cock,* Dip. A p p . Chem., A . R . A . C . I .
Air Pollution Measurements, that is, the measurement of air pollution at or near ground level in urban and rural areas, have been carried out in Australia for over ten years. However, since this activity has been mainly concentrated in the two more highly industrialised States, New South Wales and Victoria, and only with respect to certain pollutants, the science can be regarded as still in its infancy in Australia.
IT is therefore considered opportune to look objectively at what is being done in the area, what it achieves and what developments can take place to more adequately assess the levels of air pollution and their effect in Australia .
Furthermore the population growth of Australia gives rise to increasing industrialisation, particularly in secon- dary industries within urban areas.
With this increase of secondary in- dustry must of necessity come an in- crease in the levels of air pollution.
These increased levels of air pollution will not only arise from the direct activities of the industries, but such ancilliary activities as transportation and power generation. Admittedly air pollution control in the form of prior approval of new industrial plant will reduce the emission of air impurities f.om these sources to at least the statutory limits, but with increasing in- dustrialisation the levels of air pollu- tion must grow.
Therefore air pollution measure- ments are necessary to monitor these increases and to ensure that the emission limits operating are adequate.
The History of Air Pollution Measurements
Air pollution measurements began in 1953, when Dr. J. L. Sullivan, who was then a Scientific Officer with the Occupational Health Division of the N.S.W. Health. Department, considered that air pollution in the Sydney area was a matter of concern. These measurements were initially for de- posited material or fall-out and later for sulphur dioxide and smoke con- centration. As a result of his activities Dr. Sullivan was able to summon sufficient interest in the problem so that ultimately the Clean Air Act of 1961,
! * Preserved to the M e e ' i n g of the Vic- j j torian Branch of the Clean A i r Society on I
March 12, 1968.
Mr. W. Howard Cock.
was passed and the Air Pollution Control Branch was formed.
Queensland Department of Health carried out s o m e air pollution measurements in the form of a deposit gauge survey and smoke concentr- tion determinations in 1959, but little use was made of these results.
Following the passing of The Clean Air Act of 1958 in Victoria, two officers were appointed in 1959 to the Victorian Department of Health, to investigate air pollution in that State.
One of these was Mr. L. S. Layton, the present Senior Engineer, Air Pollution, and the other, the present author. Immediately steps were taken to commence on an air poliution measurement survey, commencing with deposit gauges for fall-out and iater extending this to sulphur dioxide and smoke concentration monitors.
In recent years, Western Australia and South Australia have commenced some air pollution measurements of fall-out, sulphur dioxide, and smoke concentrations.
In considering the air pollution measurements as carried out in Aus- tralia, we must look initially at the types of problems which arise from air pollution. It has been stated, particu-
larly in Victoria, that our levels of air pollution, are low. This has been shown by the comparison of dust fall- out readings for Australian cities (see Table 1), when compared with others overseas.' However there must be no feeling of complacency as a result of these facts for in localised areas severe problems can and do exist. Moreover increasing industrialisation on a large scale as we have seen in the mining industry in recent years can contribute extensively to the localised problem.
Air pollution measurements provide a useful method of continuous monitor- ing of these problem sources pending other more direct methods of control.
Sulphur dioxide is the other main precursor of air pollution levels and the monitoring of this pollutant be- comes more necessary as the use of high sulphur fuels, both solid and liquid, increases. Natural gas will obviously assist the reduction of sulphur dioxide from these sources and monitoring will provide us with information as to the effectiveness of the reduction.
Increasing motor vehicle population could give rise to such problems as photo-chemical smog under certain climatic conditions. Monitoring of the air pollutants which contribute to this phenomenon and of the products which result, will thus become of greater importance.
Instruments and Methods for Air Pollution Measurements
Used in Australia
(a) Deposit Gauge. The deposit gauge as used in Australia is an ex- tremely simple instrument. It con- sists of a six inch diameter glass funnel mounted on a one gallon glass bottle.
The whole is mounted in a suitable stand. When one compares the size and construction of this Australian Deposit Gauge with the British Stan- dard Deposit Gauge,2 it is quite ob- vious that the Australian unit is much simpler, cheaper and easier to handle.
Processing of the material collected, because of the smaller quantities is also made easier.
In principle, particulate matter fall- ing from the atmosphere collects in the funnel and if sufficiently heavy falls
September, 1968—CLEAN AIR
into the glass bottle. It is necessary for rain to fall however, to effect the removal of the dust from the funnel into the bottle, in the field. The unit suffers from some disadvantages, the main one being that dust which is not washed into the bottle by rain is likely to be re-entrained by winds. The second disadvantage is that the unit is left out for long periods, usually one month, and thus cannot monitor source pollution with ease.
Despite the disadvantages the unit is cheap, analysis of the collected material is simple and fairly rapid.
The main advantage lies in the fact that deposit gauges provide one index of the levels of air pollution at a reasonable capital cost.
The air pollutants collected by the deposit gauge are expressed in tons per square mile per month. The use of this unit is thus supposed to provide in- formation as to the dust fall-out over an area. However, it must be realised that the scaling up from approximately 27 square inches to one square mile must lead to very large errors, par- ticularly when the unit is dependent on. variability factors such as rain.
Therefore, the deposit gauge must be regarded as a first order of magnitude instrument only, and as air pollution control methods improve so must the instruments which collect and measure particulate matter in the atmosphere.
An improved type of deposit gauge known as the C.E.R.L. Directional Deposit Gauge has had some use in Western Australia. While giving some appreciation of the direction from which the dust originated, this instru- ment still suffers from the basic faults of the other types of deposit gauges mentioned above.
Deposit gauges have been and arc used in the following areas:
(i) New South Wales
From 1954 to the present date, commencing in Sydney and extending t o N e w c a s t l e , Wollongong-Port Kembla, Parramatta and Lithgow. In toto 133 gauges were in use in 1966.
( i i ) Victoria
The survey began in 1959 with five gauges and. was expanded until 57 gauges were in use in 1965 in metro- politan Melbourne, Geelong and Tra- ralgon areas.
( i i i ) South Australia
Deposit gauges are used mainly in the metropolitan area with four in Mt. Gambier area. The survey com- menced in 1961, and substantially all the gauges were installed by 1962.
(iv) Western Australia
As previously mentioned, Western Australia has concentrated on. the use of the C.E.R.L. Dust Pollution Gauge, which has a directional facility. The use of the gauge in Western Australia has been detailed in a paper by Dr. H.
H. Macey of the Department of Public Health, W.A.4 In this paper he states,
"The C.E.R.L. Directional Dust Col- lector is considered a very useful tool.
The climate of Western Australia has, however, necessitated a considerable modification, to the method of report- ing results it gives".
Dr. Macey's application of the in- strument to date has been largely as a research programme rather than a monitoring one.
As far as is known, the other States, viz. Queensland and Tasmania have not as yet used the deposit gauge for the monitoring of air pollution.
(b) Smoke and Sulphur Dioxide Monitors. These instruments are in daily use in N.S.W., Victoria and South Australia. They are based on the D.S.I.R. Volumetric Instrument as used in the U.K.,3 but differ in small detail.
Briefly the instrument consists of a sampling train comprised of a paper strip holder in which the fine aerosol particulate matter is collected, and a Dreschel bottle in which sulphur dioxide is absorbed in a solution of hydrogen peroxide. The flow of air through the unit is effected by a small piston type pump and is measured by a gas meter.
The paper strip holder has an orifice in contact with the paper vary- ing in size from ½ inch to one inch diameter, the smaller diameter being necessary when levels of pollution are relatively low.
Concentrations of aerosol material collected on the paper strip are deter- mined by "reading" the stain with a reflectometer or a light transmission meter. While both methods are in use, it is considered preferable to use a reflectometer to overcome slight dif- ferences in the intensity of transmitted light, due to thickness and/or dif- ferences in opacity of the filter paper strip.
Reflectometer or transmission meter readings are then used in a formula to express the concentration of aerosol as COH units. The initials COH are an abbreviation of "Coefficient of Haze".
Fig. I: Medium V o l u m e Sampler (cover removed). Fig. I I : Medium Volume Sampler.
CLEAN AIR—September. IV68 11
A COH unit corresponds to that quantity of smoke in sampled air which when drawn through clean filter paper produces a stain of optical density 0.01.
The values thus obtained give a measure of the soiling quality of the air and provide a useful day by day comparison.
Sulphur dioxide w h i c h passes through the paper strip is absorbed in the Dreschel bottle by a weak solution of hydrogen peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide oxidises the sulphur dioxide to trioxide, which is then dis- solved as a very weak solution of sul- phuric acid. The concentration of sulphuric acid is later determined in the laboratory by titration with stan- dard borate solution and the results expressed as sulphur dioxide in parts per hundred million, (p.p.h.m.).
Measurements of aerosol material and sulphur dioxide by the above method are used in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. In New South Wales in an industrial area, peak daily average concentration of sulphur dioxide in July, 1966, rose to 22.5 p.p.h.m.,5 while Victorian records have shown a peak value of 16.0, in October, 1964.6 Peak values for South Australia (Adelaide metropolitan area), of 13.8 to 20.7 p.p.h.m., were recorded during February, 1967.7
The above results while of peak values only (average values are con- siderably less as a general rule), indicate the usefulness of the instru- ment in the daily monitoring for sulphur dioxide. When peak values rise to the values shown above, it is indicative of the need for more sophisticated types of monitoring instruments, which can record peak values based on a three minute mean sampling time.
Such an instrument finds use in New South Wales, where the Air Pollution Control Branch have several Thomas Autometers including one set up as a mobile unit. These instruments operate on a conductimetric principle, auto- matically aspirating the air through a column in which a solution of hydrogen peroxide is flowing. When t'.ie solution passes into a conducti- metric cell the increased conductivity is read out directly in p.p.h.m. sulphur dioxide on a strip chart.
A number of such instruments arc now available operating on the same principle, as well as several using a coloiimctiic principle of determination.
Oxidants
The measurement of oxidants which include ozone, as an indication of the formation of photo-chemical smog, has
City
S y d n e y
Newcastle
W o l l o n g o n g
Port Kembla
M e l b o u r n e
A d e l a i d e
TABLE 1
Dust Deposition T o n s / M i l e2/ M o n t h Type of Insoluble Water Soluble Combustible Year
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1965
Industrial Commercial Residential M i x e d ,
largely Industrial M i x e d ,
largely Commercial M i x e d ,
largely Industrial Industrial Commercial Residential Rural l n d u s : r i a l Commercial Residential
1 5 . 0 - 2 8 . 6 7 . 9 - 19.3 5 . 5 - 1 3 . 9 1 0 . 6 - 4 8 . 6
12.1 - 16.2
2 0 . 3 - 6 1 . 2 5 . 5 - 1 1 . 0 5 . 8 - 17.2 4 . 4 - 10.7
4.5 14.1 10.6 4.6
6.8 - 9.4 4.1 - 6.7 2 . 7 - 7.6 7.1 - 2 4 . 2
3 . 5 - 1 1 . 0
5 . 6 - 1 5 . 7 3 . 2 - 3.7
1.8- 5.2 3 . 2 - 4 . 0
2.8 6.8 4.8 3.4
4 . 5 - 9.0 2 . 4 - 4.8 2 . 0 - 4.4 5.1 - 13.6
3 . 5 - 4.6
4.1 - 14.7 1.4- 2.4 2 . 4 - 2.9 1.4- 1.5
1.1 4.0 2.5 1.2 Table 1: Dust Deposition in Australian Cities.
not been used to any great degree in Australia. New South Wales Air Pollution Control Branch have made short term surveys from time to time, using the method described by Jacobs.8 These have shown low levels when compared with those obtained in such places as Los Angeles.
However, it can be expected that under certain meteorological conditions and with increasing motor car popu- lations in future years, that the level of oxidants in the atmosphere of major Australian cities will increase, and as a result greater use will have to be made of this type of air pollutant measurement to monitor the situation.
Other air pollution measurements which have been used in the detection of localised aid pollution problems are:
(a) Automatic paper tape samplers.
(b) High volume samplers.
Both types of instruments have been used at times in New South Wales and Victoria.
In Victoria, the automatic paper tape sampler using sensitised paper taDe was used for a survey of hydrogen sulphide pollution which arose from rotting seaweed. Also in Victoria high volume samplers have been used in an attempt to monitor pollution from point sources. In both cases meteoro- logical data was used in conjunction with the measurements.
In the case of hydrogen sulphide determinations, reflectance measure- ments are used to read the stain on the paper strip and this is compared with a chart from which the corres- ponding concentrations of hydrogen sulphide in parts per million can be read off. For smoke concentrations COH values can be calculated using the same method as adopted for the
modified D.S.I.R. instrument described above.
High volume sampling measure- ments of particulate density are made by weighing the filter through which the contaminated air has been drawn for a period of time. The result can be expressed in milligrams per cubic meter or in grains per cubic foot of air sampled.
High volume sampling has been used in N.S.W., for sampling of air pollutants to determine the amount of polycyclic hydrocarbons (including those which are carcinogens).9
Medium Volume Sampling
A recent development in air sampling which has been applied by the author on. behalf of a client, the Shire of Altona, Victoria, uses mem-
brane filters for collection of total particulate matter from the atmos- phere. The Shire of Altona requested air pollution measurements in their rapidly developing industrial area to maintain a check to ensure that the proper standards are maintained.
Deposit gauges and a smoke and sulphur dioxide monitor were already in use in the area, but the Council felt that something additional was re- quired.
The instrument which was developed is illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. It con- sists of a vacuum pump capable of drawing approximately 30 litres per minute through a membrane filter, which is held in a filter holder. Filters which are pre-weighed are changed at a set time each day, and knowing the flow rate of the vacuum pump through regular calibrations, the volume of air drawn through the filter per 24 hours is known.
To ensure no errors occur through
Exhibition of Equipment
T H I R D CLEAN AIR CONFERENCE, May, 1969 At the next Clean Air Conference, to be held from May 19 to 22, 1969, at the University of New South Wales, it is intended to arrange a display of equipment associated with the control of air pollution. These conferences attract a large number of people from local government, private industry and government instrumentalities who have a special interest in pollution.
Organisations wishing to enter in this ex- hibition should submit their space requirements and an outline of their display as soon as possible to Dr. J. Harry, Air Pollution Control Branch, 86 George St., Sydney, Telephone 27.8541.
moisture content of the membrane niters, they are dried in a vacuum dissicator for 12 hours prior to the pre-weighing. To offset the electro- static effect of the filters when weigh- ing, this operation is performed in plastic petri dishes, each one being marked with identifying letter and number. The letter refers to the day of commencement of exposure. After exposure, the filters are again dried by vacuum dessication and re-weighed still in the petri dishes. The difference in weight which can range from two to 15 milligrams is thus the total weight of the particulate material collected. After weighing for total particulate matter, the filters are then examined under the microscope by incident light at a magnification of 100. In this way particules can be identified and subdivided into "car- bonaceous", "siliceous" and "other"
categories (which, are usually fly ash spheres). Correlation of the particle identification with wind direction can be used to attempt to isolate the source of the emission.
The filters are then ashed in por- celain crucibles in a muffle furnace at 800 deg. Cent., after pre-ignition with the aid of alcohol to prevent rapid ignition of the cellulose nitrate mem- brane. The difference in weight of the resulting ash and the total is therefore the combustible material present.
Results are expressed in milligrams per cubic meter of air sampled.
The method constitutes a reasonably rapid method of determination which can be more useful in the identifica- tion of source pollution than any other used. As many as 14 samples can be processed in three hours. It has a major advantage over high volume sampling in that the particles can be observed more readily. In the high volume sampler using fibreglass or paper filters, particles are often deeply imbedded in the fibres, whereas on the membrane filter they remain on the surface.
A second advantage is that the sampling rate has a more realistic meaning since at 30 litres per minute it approximates to the breathing rate of a human being walking at four miles per hour.
Further improvements to the sampl- ing instrument could be affected by the inclusion of flow measurement of either recording or integrating types.
Reliability has been proven in that one instrument has been operating con- tinuously for two years, while the other unit has operated intermittently for a total period of approximately one year.
In heavily polluted areas it may be necessary to reduce the sampling time for each filter or increase the size of the filter, since heavy build up of material could cause a reduction of flow through the membrane and also make the microscopic identification of particles difficult.
Proposed Developments in Air Pollution Measurements in Australia
New South Wales. A substitution for part of the deposit gauge survey with air pollution measurement stations comprising many different types of measurement such as COH values, sulphur dioxide oxidant levels and meteorological data is under considera- tion at the present time. Where pos- sible, instruments will be of the auto- matic type and telemetering of results is a possibility.
Victoria. The major development which appears to be imminent in this State is the introduction of the auto- matic sulphur dioxide type of recorder.
Queensland. It is understood that the installation of sequential smoke and sulphur dioxide monitors recently developed by the D.S.I.R. of U.K. is taking place. Other developments will probably be dependent on the appoint- ment of further staff under the Director of Air Pollution Control, Mr. A.
Gilpin.
In other States it would appear that further development in air pollution measurements are contingent on the appointment of further staff to enable this work to be carried out.
Summary
Air pollution measurements in Aus- tralia are at present restricted almost solely to deposit gauge and smoke and sulphur dioxide surveys. These are being carried out to an appreciable extent in. only three States, viz. New South Wales, Victoria and South Aus- tralia.
The deposit gauge is considered as a tool for first order of magnitude measurements only. It should there- fore be replaced by instruments, the results from which can be correlated, on a daily basis at least, with meteoro- logical data for the more easy identifi- cation of source pollution. Such an instrument is being used by the Shire of Altona in Victoria.
REFERENCES
1 Katz: A i r Pollution in Canada; Clean A i r Con- f e r e n c e , 1962, p. 29.
2 D.S.I.R.: Measurement of A i r P o l l u t i o n - H.M.S.O., p. 6.
3 D.S.I.R.: Measurement of A i r P o l l u t i o n - H.M.S.O., p. 20.
4 M a c e y , H. H.: "Experience w i t h C.E.R.L Dust P o l l u t i o n G a u g e " ; A t m o s p h e r i c Environment, V o l . 1, p p . 637-642, Pergamon Press.
5 M u r p h y , R. P.: " D e v e l o p m e n t s in A i r Pollution C o n t r o l in A u s t r a l i a " ; Australian Chemical Pro- cessing and Engineering, V o l . 2 0 , N o . 1 1 , N o v e m b e r , 1967.
6 A i r Pollution Measurements in V i c t o r i a ; Yearly Results 1960-1965, Commission of Public H e a l : h , V i c t o r i a .
7 Private C o m m u n i c a t i o n ; W. Lilburn, Engineer A i r Pollution, S.A. Department of Health.
8 Jacobs, M o r r i s B.: The Chemical A n a l y s i s of A i r Pollutants, p. 2 1 9 ; Interscience Publishers, N.Y.
9 Cleary, G. J . : Nature of Polynuclear A r o m a t i c Hydrocarbons in A i r Particulates; Proc. Clean A i r Conference, 1962, V o l . 1 .
CLEAN AIR—September. 1968 13
