Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, Series 4 Western Australia, Series 4
Volume 2
Number 3 March, 1961 Article 3
1-1-1961
Worms in poultry Worms in poultry
H D. Seddon
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation
Seddon, H D. (1961) "Worms in poultry," Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, Series 4:
Vol. 2: No. 3, Article 3.
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WORMS IN POULTRY
By H. D. SEDDON, B.V.Sc.
W
ORMS occurring in poultry in Western Australia include both round worms a n d tapeworms. However, t h e intestinal round worm (Ascaridia galli) which is found in t h e small intestine a n d duodenum is by far t h e most important and its effects t h e most serious.The caecal worm (Heterakis gallinae), a l t h o u g h not a serious cause of loss by itself, is of importance in t h a t its eggs can carry an infection of Blackhead, a disease caused by a protozoan, Histomonas meleagridis.
The tapeworms, Choanotaenia infundi- bulum, Raillietina echinobothrida a n d Davainea spp. are not commonly seen, and are usually associated with poor sanitation in poultry establishments.
THE INTESTINAL ROUND WORM (Ascaridia galli)
This large, round worm is a cause of considerable economic loss to t h e poultry industry in this Sate t h r o u g h delayed and unthrifty growth, loss of birds a n d t h e delay in onset of egg-laying it causes.
These signs are seen especially under poor conditions of m a n a g e m e n t , as birds suffer- ing from deficiencies in protein, vitamin A, or vitamin B2 (riboflavin) are more susceptible to infestation t h a n are well- fed birds.
The worm is common a n d widespread.
It is yellowish white in colour, measuring about one-sixteenth of a n inch in diameter a n d 2 t o 5 inches i n length, t h e male being smaller t h a n t h e female. I t m a y be found in large numbers in t h e duodenum and small intestines, producing m a r k e d symp- toms in young birds.
Life Cycle.
The life cycle does n o t involve any intermediate host. T h e female worm lays eggs which are passed from t h e birds and onto t h e ground where they m a y survive for up to 8 m o n t h s in moist soil in t h e shade under optimal n a t u r a l conditions or 15 weeks if exposed to sunlight. Direct
sunlight or dryness kills them. The eggs develop in the open a n d can become i n - fective in 10 days.
A bird is infested by swallowing the eggs in food or water, larvae h a t c h i n g out i n t h e gizzard or upper part of t h e small intestine. Ten days later, t h e larvae p e n e t r a t e t h e duodenal wall where they stay for one week before re-entering t h e lumen of the small intestine. The h a t c h - ing larvae take 100 days to reach maturity, when egg-laying completes the cycle.
Symptoms.
Young birds are more susceptible to infestation t h a n adults, or those which have recovered from the previous infesta- tion, so it is in 3 to 9 m o n t h s old birds where they can cause greatest havoc.
Birds deficient in vitamin A, or the B series, are more susceptible.
The damage produced is twofold.
Firstly, t h e i m m a t u r e larvae which burrow into t h e intestinal wall cause haemorrhages and inflammation, which heal and result in t h e intestine becoming scarred and thickened. This results in birds suffering from diarrhoea and anaemia.
Secondly, toxic substances excreted by t h e m a t u r e worm cause t h e birds to be- come unthrifty, thin, and generally weak with a drop or, in the case of pullets, a delay in egg production. In heavy infesta- tions, obstruction of the small intestine may occur.
The symptoms can be particularly severe in young birds, 4 to 5 m o n t h s of age, where they occur after a week from infestation, but symptoms can occur as early as one m o n t h of age. There is a loss of appetite and increased thirst, and, 213
with heavy infestations, a frothy, m u s t a r d - coloured d i a r r h o e a develops w i t h paleness of comb a n d s h a n k s , drooping wings a n d a h u n c h e d up, drowsy a p p e a r a n c e . D e - velopment is a r r e s t e d , weight gain slows down, a n d t h e birds m a y become e m a c i - ated. Pullets m a y fail to come into egg production for u p t o 2 to 3 m o n t h s . Some birds may die.
Older birds also lose t h e colour of c o m b , a n d s h a n k s in a heavy infestation a n d show dull p l u m a g e a n d loss of weight in spite of increased food c o n s u m p t i o n . Egg production drops off. Eventually, m a r k e d a n a e m i a a n d e m a c i a t i o n develop; b u t unless o t h e r causes i n t e r v e n e , d e a t h is less frequent t h a n with young stock.
Diagnosis.
Diagnosis is based on t h e symptoms described above a n d confirmed by finding a heavy infestation in t h e intestine of a badly affected bird which h a s been killed for e x a m i n a t i o n . This e x a m i n a t i o n will reveal congested i n t e s t i n e w i t h h a e m o r r - hages on t h e wall a n d a loss of tone a n d thickening in long s t a n d i n g cases.
T h e liver is also enlarged a n d congested, a n d small h a e m o r r h a g e s on its surface may result from larvae e n t e r i n g after p e n e t r a t i n g t h e i n t e s t i n a l wall. Mortality can be as h i g h as 35 per c e n t , as a result of enteritis caused by burrowing larvae, or later, due to weight loss a n d a n a e m i a . T r e a t m e n t .
T r e a t m e n t of i n f e s t a t i o n s a i m s a t ex- pelling t h e p a r a s i t e s from t h e birds a n d housing in clean cages. Effectiveness of t r e a t m e n t is decreased if w h a t are virtually "diseased p r e m i s e s " are not t r e a t e d simultaneously.
The most convenient t r e a t m e n t for birds is with piperazine w h i c h is easily administered in t h e feed or water. Piper- azine is available a s t h e h y d r a t e , a d i p a t e or citrate u n d e r a n u m b e r of t r a d e n a m e s . It can be fed in t h e m a s h a t t h e r a t e of 1 lb. per 350 lb. of m a s h , or added to t h e water a t t h e r a t e of 1 ounce p e r 3£ gallons for 24 hours following overnight s t a r v a - tion or deprivation of w a t e r for 12 hours.
Since badly affected birds e a t little, dosing t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r is t h e b e t t e r method.
A second t r e a t m e n t 10 days after t h e first is recommended to expel t h o s e larvae
which have m a t u r e d since t h e first t r e a t - m e n t , as larvae are not susceptible t o piperazine.
Two series of t r e a t m e n t s a t ages of 10 a n d 18 weeks before a n d after vaccination for fowl pox are r e c o m m e n d e d to e n s u r e successful response to t h e vaccine, a n d prevent t h e setback of weight g a i n encountered.
An a l t e r n a t i v e t r e a t m e n t is by individual drenching a t 10 a n d 18 weeks of age w i t h carbon tetrachloride. This t r e a t m e n t e n - sures t h a t every bird receives t r e a t m e n t , which m a y n o t always occur w h e n p i p e r - azine is fed in t h e m a s h to heavily infested birds which do not eat well. However, i t presents drawbacks, in t h a t more l a b o u r is required t o complete t h e d e w o r m i n g programme a n d t h e r e is t h e d a n g e r of some losses of birds due to toxicity of t h e chemical.
A dose r a t e of f cc. of carbon t e t r a - chloride per pound live weight is to b e used, and usually l i ccs. is a d e q u a t e a t 10 weeks of age a n d 2 ccs. a t 18 weeks. If t h e birds are heavier, t h e dose m a y b e increased, u p to a m a x i m u m of 3 ccs.
Drenching should be done early in t h e evening following s t a r v a t i o n from a b o u t 9 a.m. and one hour w i t h o u t water. T h i s leaves t h e crop e m p t y so t h a t t h e dose can be administered directly into t h e c r o p with a long nozzled d r e n c h i n g gun. How- ever, as one drop of carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e administered into t h e lungs c a n c a u s e i n s t a n t d e a t h , care should be t a k e n i n administration. This m a y occur if t h e gun enters t h e windpipe, or if a drop of t h e chemical passes into t h e lungs on withdrawing t h e nozzle of t h e gun, or b y fumes from t h e nozzle e n t e r i n g t h e l u n g s on a very h o t day due to rapid e v a p o r a - tion. Losses may not ocur in t h e h a n d s of a n experienced operator. Care should be t a k e n t h a t birds are not suffocated by overcrowding when they are being c a u g h t .
Birds should have access to b o t h food a n d water immediately after d r e n c h i n g .
T r e a t m e n t with Nicotine S u l p h a t e h a s been found successful, but less efficient t h a n piperazine derivatives or c a r b o n tetrachloride. Capsules c o n t a i n i n g t e t r a - chlorethylene may also be used for i n - dividual dosing of small flocks. T h e dose r a t e is t h e same as for carbon t e t r a - chloride a n d capsules are available c o n - 214
t a i n i n g i cc. or 1 cc. Losses from t h e vermifuge entering t h e lungs a r e elimin- a t e d by this m e t h o d of t r e a t m e n t . Control.
T h e control of r o u n d worm infestation should begin w i t h t r e a t m e n t , combined with steps to reduce a n d p r e v e n t t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e ground by worm eggs. As sunlight a n d dryness a r e b o t h lethal to t h e eggs, t h e s e should be utilised to t h e i r fullest e x t e n t in p l a n n i n g of poultry cages. Reservation of a section of t h e farm solely for raising r e p l a c e m e n t stock is a sound practice, a n d old birds should n o t be kept on it, as t h e y are a source of worm eggs. T h e use of w a t e r i n g points which are actually outside t h e cages, a n d wide eaves to prevent r a i n entering t h e shed are advised to keep t h e inside of t h e cages dry a n d these combine well with t h e deep l i t t e r system of m a n a g e - m e n t . Five per cent, lysol (1 ounce of lysol to 1 pint of w a t e r ) is recommended to kill ova where wooden or concrete floors are in use. Spelling of cages will allow t h e eggs to die in time.
S t a n d a r d t r e a t m e n t s of all birds, w h e t h e r they show signs of infestation or n o t , w i t h two medications of piperazine 10 days a p a r t , b o t h a t 10 a n d 18 weeks of age is ideal for control. More t r e a t m e n t s should be carried o u t as necessary, as t h e long survival of eggs allows infestation to build u p all the t i m e .
THE CAECAL WORM (Heterakis gallinae)
Infestation w i t h t h i s worm is very common in this S t a t e , but a p p a r e n t l y it does little or no h a r m by itself even when infestations are very heavy. It is a white worm measuring i t o ^ inch in l e n g t h a n d occurs in t h e two caecae of its host.
T h e life cycle does n o t involve a n y i n t e r - mediate host a n d infestation results from t h e swallowing of eggs with food or water.
Larvae h a t c h in t h e intestine a n d burrow into t h e wall of t h e caecae, b u t produce very little damage. Hached larvae t a k e 24 days to m a t u r e .
T h e importance of t h i s p a r a s i t e is t h a t its eggs c a n h a r b o u r t h e causative a g e n t of Blackhead (Histomonas meleagridis) which does not survive conditions outside its host very well. T h u s it c a n be respon- sible for t h e spread of this disease.
T r e a t m e n t with phenothiazine is quite effective, and is conveniently mixed in dry feed at t h e r a t e of \ ounce per lb. for 6 consecutive days.
Hygiene a n d shed design as described for t h e control of Ascaridia galli also apply here.
POULTRY TAPEWORMS
Tapeworms are uncommon in poultry in W.A. and when they are found it is not usually in large numbers. Tapeworms are usually a problem only under conditions of poor sanitation a n d only rarely are they t h e cause of death. However, light infestations may predispose to other diseases.
T h r e e species of tapeworm occur in poultry in this S t a t e : —
(1) Choanotaenia infundibulum which occurs in t h e small intestine a n d is u p to 8 inches in length. I t passes a stage of its life cycle in an intermediate host, which in this case c a n be t h e house fly or a n u m b e r of different beetles.
The life cycle is completed by t h e fowl swallowing t h e beetle.
(2) Raillietina echinobothrida also occurs in t h e small intestine and measures up to 9 inches in length.
Its intermediate host is a n a n t , which, when swallowed, releases a larval tapeworm which will m a t u r e in 19 or 20 days. Occasion- ally these tapeworms m a y p r o - duce nodules on the bowel wall.
(3) Davainea spp. These tapeworms are very small, measuring only up to one eighth of a n inch in length. They only have 4 to 9 segments a t t a c h e d to t h e neck which is anchored onto t h e wall of t h e duodenum. Its eggs are rapidly killed by frost or drying and t h e intermediate host is a slug.
Symptoms of tapeworm burden are not often seen even in very heavy infestations, a n d t h e best evidence of their presence is on discovery after a dead bird h a s been examined, or when a bird h a s been killed for some other purpose. T h e n they are seen as long, flat m a n y - s e g m e n t e d worms whose narrow end is a t t a c h e d to t h e bowel wall while t h e wider end h a n g s free.
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Occasionally signs of diarrhoea, a capricious appetite, dull plumage and emaciation are seen in heavy infestations.
Treatment with 1 to 2 ccs. of carbon tetrachloride given as a drench is advised but is not very effective, as the mature segments drop off but the heads often remain behind to produce more segments.
Therefore treatment is only of value in heavy infestations.
Control through improved sanitation"
and nutrition under which infestations may be thrown off are advised and access
to the intermediate hosts should be pre- vented. Birds on free range are, for this reason, more prone to infestation than those housed in close cages.
As the intermediate hosts include flies, beetles, slugs and snails, fowl droppings should not be used as fertiliser for manur- ing green fodder intended for consump- tion by poultry, lest the life cycle of the parasite be completed. Dusting poultry runs with copper sulphate (bluestone) to control intermediate hosts is also advised.
HOW TO SUBMIT INSECT SPECIMENS FOR IDENTIFICATION
By C. F. H. JENKINS, M.A., Government Entomologist
F
ROM time to time most farmers and orchardists come across insects or other small creatures which they have not seen before and about which they would like some information. I get numerous queries about such creatures and am always glad to help, but sometimes the task is made unnecessarily difficult. The most detailed description of a caterpillar or a beetle given by letter is often quite useless as many of the most important features from the scientific point of view may be omitted.Whenever inquiries are being made about even the commonest of insects, specimens should always be forwarded.
In the case of fully mature insects, some dead specimens in a small box will usually prove adequate. For preference, they should be wrapped or padded with tissue paper to stop them from rattling about and losing their limbs. On no account should they be wrapped in cotton wool as the legs and feelers become so entangled that casualties are almost inevitable when the specimens are being unpacked.
Where caterpillars are concerned, these should be forwarded alive, if possible, with a quantity of the food plant. It is often very difficult to accurately identify cater- pillars but if they can be reared to maturity the task is much easier.
In no account should insects alive or dead (especially if they are rather fleshy) be forwarded in closely sealed tins or bottles. Even in cold weather they are often too decomposed to identify and in
the summer the aromas which quite small insects can produce after being sealed up for a while must be experienced to be fully apreciated. A cardboard box is usually a satisfactory container, especially when caterpillars and food plants are involved.
Some specimens, especially very small ones, can be safely forwarded in methy- lated spirits or formalin but bottles should be carefully packed to avoid breakage.
It should be remembered that when in- formation is wanted about any creature, several specimens should be sent if at all possible. Full particulars should also be given as to the prevalence of the insect, where it was found, and the type of damage it was doing. The name and address of the sender should accompany the specimens even if a covering letter has been for- warded independently.
Whenever you see a strange insect about which you have any suspicions, don't hesitate to send in an inquiry.
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