This is most likely an outlier due to the high inhomogeniety of MSOW; this particular sample likely to contained very small amount of ash.
From Figure 4.1(a), as well as Table 4.6, it can be observed that the highest amount of solid yield was found for experiment 12A (275◦C, 20 mins, and 90% water); the literature reported solid yield percentage is 72% [151], which is less than the solid yield found for experiment 12A. This is due to the high ash content in the MSOW of DNCC; the amount of ash in the biocoal in literature is reported to be between 22.8 - 46.0 % [91, 100]. In contrast, the ash content of the biocoal produced in this study ranged from 60.7 - 75.5%, with an outlier at 31.6%. This could be due to presence of high amounts of construction sand in the MSOW of Bangladesh.
However, the dry ash-free carbon content of 65.2% for experiment 12A (275◦C, 20 mins, and 90% water) matched the biocoal mass percentage (derived from biomass) of around
63% [151]. Heilmannet al. reported that the carbon content of biocoal derived via HTC of algae (Dunaliella salina) was 66.3 % [152].
At higher temperatures, solid yield decreases because hydrothermal liquefaction and hy- drothermal gasification takes place [90, 92, 102, 152]. At longer residence times, the biocoal yield is also reported to decrease [153]. These are consistent with the findings of this study. The reported biocoal or hydrochar is said to have a calorific value (HHV) between 15-20 MJ/kg [89, 91, 92]. The calculated calorific value (HHV) for the biocoal produced in this study ranged from 9.56 - 14.92 MJ/kg.
Table 4.7, shows that experiment 12A (275◦C, 20 mins, and 90% water) had the highest carbon content. Figure 4.2(a) shows that experiment 12A has a HHV higher (11.5 MJ/kg) than the parent MSOW sample (10.90 MJ/kg). These observations are consistent with literature. Yoshikawa and Bergeet al. reported that the HHV and carbon content of the biocoal should be higher than the parent MSOW fraction [91, 100].
90% water loading, maximum (83 %) of the energy was retained in biocoal with respect to the parent MSOW sample.
(a) (b)
(c)
75.7 82.7
44.3 0
20 40 60 80 100
240 275 300
Energy Retenon / %
Temperature/ °C
20 minutes
79.7
57.1 52.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
240 275 300
Energy Retenon / %
Temperature/ °C
30 minutes
70.2
55.3
76.9
0 20 40 60 80 100
240 275 300
Energy Retenon / %
Temperature/ °C
40 minutes
FIGURE4.6: Energy retention by biocoals obtained at various conditions with 90% water loading
Figure 4.7 shows the SEM images of the dried parent MSOW sample with a number of hydrothermally treated dried samples including MSOW and wood. Compared to the struc- ture of biocoal obtained from HTC of wood (Figure 4.7d), the biocoal obtained from HTC of MSOW (Figure 4.7b and 4.7c) had retained an amorphous structure inherited from its parent MSOW sample (Figure 4.7a). Wood surface showed some pores opening up on the surface after hydrothermal carbonization while biocoal (obtained from HTC of MSOW) had a surface covered with fragmented particles. Fragmentation occurred randomly for a number of particles while some particles managed to retain their shapes. This means fragments from some of particles was covering the surface of the solid block shaped par- ticles. It was observed for all the hydrothermally carbonized MSOW samples irrespective of the reaction conditions. Such structure is typically observed for biocoal produced from high ash containing biomass feedstocks, such as, algae [154]. It could be also noted that MSW generated in Singapore had a similar structure after hydrothermal carbonization as reported by Parshettiet al.[155]. This structural property is also very important for post- utilization of biocoal from MSOW. The combustion/gasification of biocoal is expected to be dominated by surface reaction due to the lack of pores [156].
FIGURE4.7: SEM images of the parent and hydrothermally carbonized sam- ples (dried)
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
MSW sampling at DNCC landfill site yielded a composition of waste comprising of mostly organic waste (more than 74%); providing the possibility to harness energy from waste. The remaining fractions of MSW are cotton, plastic, paper, wood, leather, rubber, and other inorganics. The moisture content of the MSOW (organic waste) was determined to be 70.2%. The sampling was conducted during dry season; the moisture content might vary during monsoon season.
The presence of significant amount of ash in the MSOW of Bangladesh lowers the calorific value of the biocoal produced. The biocoal obtained from DNCC MSOW had signifi- cantly high amount of ash as compared to other literature reports.
The analyses of experimental results revealed that at higher temperatures and longer reac- tion time, the solid yield decreases. A general trend in decreasing HHV with increasing re- action temperature is also observed. Based on the factorial design of HTC experiments on MSOW, the optimum condition was determined. The optimum condition for hydrother- mal carbonization of DNCC MSOW was found to be at at 275◦C, with a reaction time of 20 minutes, and at a water loading of 90% by mass. The HHV of the biocoal produced
75
at these conditions was slightly higher, had the highest solid yield, and had the highest carbon content. Moreover, the biocoal produced at the optimum condition retained about 83% of the energy content of parent MSOW.
No pore formation was observed for the biocoal from SEM analyses. Therefore, the surface reaction might be the dominating mechanism during its possible post-utilization (i.e. combustion or gasification).
[1] Rahman SS, A Study on Solid Waste Management of Barisal City Corporation, Ph.D. thesis, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, 2005
[2] Association AP, Socioeconomic Status, 2019 (Accessed February 16, 2019), https://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status
[3] Khan D, Kumar A and Samadder SR,Impact of socioeconomic status on municipal solid waste generation rate, Waste Management, 2016. 49:pp. 15–25. doi:10.
1016/j.wasman.2016.01.019
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.01.019
[4] Bandara NJ, Hettiaratchi JPA, Wirasinghe SC and Pilapiiya S, Relation of waste generation and composition to socio-economic factors: A case study, Envi- ronmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2007. 135:pp. 31–39. doi:10.1007/
s10661-007-9705-3
[5] Wertz KL,Economic factors influencing households’ production of refuse, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 1976. 2(4):pp. 263–272. doi:
10.1016/S0095-0696(76)80004-6
[6] Rahman SH and Rahman S,Urban Solid Waste Management Using GIS Technique : A Case Study on Mohammadpur Thana at Dhaka of Bangladesh, International Conference on Solid Waste Management, 2009.1(November):pp. 239–248
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shahriar{_}Rahman4/
77
publication/235705087{_}Urban{_}Solid{_}Waste{_}Management{_}Using{_}GIS{_}T links/09e41512c7aeb99367000000.pdf
[7] Ghazi Alajmi R, The Relationship between Economic Growth and Municipal Solid Waste & Testing the EKC Hypothesis: Analysis for Saudi Arabia, Jour- nal of International Business Research and Marketing, 2016. 1(5):pp. 20–25.
doi:10.18775/jibrm.1849-8558.2015.15.3003
http://researchleap.com/relationship-economic-growth-municipal-solid-waste-t
[8] Al-Momani AH,Solid-waste management: sampling, analysis and assessment of household waste in the city of Amman, International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 1994.4(4):pp. 208–222. doi:10.1080/09603129409356820 [9] Gim´enez L, Jolliffe D and Sharif I,Bangladesh, a Middle Income Country by 2021:
What will it take in Terms of Poverty Reduction?, World Bank Group Poverty As- sessment, 2014:p. 24
http://hdl.handle.net/10986/18668
[10] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Population & HousingPopulationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report: Rangpur, Technical report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statis- tics, 2015
[11] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,Populationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report:
Chittagong, Technical report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2015
[12] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Population & HousingPopulationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report: Khulna, Technical report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statis- tics, 2015
[13] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,Populationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report:
Dhaka, Technical report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statitstics, 2015
[14] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Population & HousingPopulationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report: Sylhet, Technical report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statis- tics, 2015
[15] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,Populationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report:
Rajshahi, Technical report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statitstics, 2015
[16] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,Populationa & Housing Census 2011 Zila Report:
Barisal, Technical report, 2015
[17] DOE, Concern W and BUET I, SAARC Workshop on Solid Waste Management, Technical report, Dhaka, 2004
[18] Alamgir M and Ahsan A, Municipal solid waste and recovery potential : Bangladesh perspective, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and En- gineering, 2007.4(2):pp. 67–76
[19] Alam O, Hossain MM and Mamun AA,An Investigation into the Green Business Opportunity for the New Entrepreneurs in the Municipal Wastes Recycling Sector of Bangladesh,in Proceedings of the WasteSafe 2015 4th International Conference on Solid Waste Management in the Developing Countries, February, pp. 1–11
[20] Moniruzzaman S, Bari Q and Fukuhara T, Recycling Practices of Solid Waste in Khulna City, Bangladesh, The Journal of Solid Waste Technology and Manage- ment, 2011.37(1):pp. 1–15. doi:10.5276/JSWTM.2011.1
http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article{&}issn=
1088-1697{&}volume=37{&}issue=1{&}spage=1
[21] Ahsan A, Alamgir M, El-Sergany MM, Shams S, Rowshon MK and Daud NNN, Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste Management System in a Developing Coun- try, Chinese Journal of Engineering, 2014.2014:pp. 1–11. doi:10.1155/2014/
561935
https://www.hindawi.com/archive/2014/561935/
[22] Alamgir M, Bidlingmaier W, Glawe U, Martens J, Sharif LA, Visvanathan C and Stepniewski W, Safe and Sustainable Management of Municipal Solid Waste in Khulna City of Bangladesh, Proceedings Sardinia Eleventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium S Margherita di Pula, 2007.1(5)
[23] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics\, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Bangladesh Population and Housing Census 2011. National Volume - 3: Urban Area Report, 2014
[24] International PC and Limited YEC,The study on the solid waste management in Dhaka City, Technical report, 2005, doi:10.1016/j.cca.2007.10.006. doi:
10.1016/j.cca.2007.10.006
[25] Centre for Clean Air Policy,Dhaka ’ s Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Program Beyond Waste The Bangladesh capital city develops an, Technical report, 2015
[26] International PC and Limited YEC, The Study on Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City, Technical report, 2005
[27] Corporation DNC,Dhaka North City Corporation Waste Report 2017-2018, 2019, 2–39
[28] Dhaka North City Corporation Waste Report 2016-2017, Technical report, Dhaka North City Corporation, Dhaka, 2016
[29] Kabir MR,Municipal Solid Waste Management System: A Study on Dhaka North and South City Corporations, Journal of Bangladesh Institute of Planners, 2015.
8:pp. 35–48
[30] Chowdhury RB, Sujauddin M, Murakami S, Chakraborty P and Alam MS,Current status of municipal solid waste management system in Chittagong, Bangladesh, In- ternational Journal of Environment and Waste Management, 2013.12(2):pp. 167–
188. doi:10.1504/IJEWM.2013.055592
http://www.inderscience.com/link.php?id=55592
[31] Ashraf MA, Islam MR, Rahman KM and Adnan MSG,Identification of Appropri- ate Landfill Sites for the City of Chittagong Identification of Appropriate Landfill Sites for the City of Chittagong, in Proceedings of the WasteSafe 2013 3rd Inter- national Conference on Solid Waste Management in the Developing Countries, pp.
1–14,doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4429.2240. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4429.2240
[32] Ahsan A, Alamgir M, Imteaz M, Nik Daud N and Islam R, Role of NGOs and CBOs in Waste Management., Iranian journal of public health, 2012. 41(6):pp.
27–38
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23113191{%}0Ahttp://www.
pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC3468999
[33] Hossain E, Islam KT, Bashar MM and Islam MR,Involvement of Household , Gov- ernment and NGOs in Solid Waste Management in Khulna City : A Compara- tive Analysis, Journal of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, 2017.
2(1):pp. 17–26. doi:10.11648/j.jccee.20170201.14 Hossain2017
[34] Khulna City Corporation,Khulna City Corporation Official Website, 2019 [35] Waste Concern,Bangladesh Waste Database 2014, Technical report, 2014
[36] Riyad ASM and Farid SH, Challenges of Waste Generation & Improvement of Existing Scenario in Commercial City of Bangladesh, Global Journal of Researches in Engineering: e Civil And Structural Engineering, 2014.14(1):pp. 7–12
[37] Islam MA, Hossain MS, Islam MA, Islam MT and Iqbal SA,Municipal Solid Waste Management in Sylhet City, Bangladesh,in Proceedings of the WasteSafe 2017 5th International Conference on Solid Waste Management in South Asian Countries 25-27 February 2017, Khulna, Bangladesh
[38] Sakib AN, Rahman A, Iqbal SA, Das S and Yousuf A,Solid waste management of Sylhet city in terms of energy, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Renewable Energy 2011
[39] Rahman MN and Ahmeduzzaman M,Case Study on the Recent Solid Waste Man- agement Scenario in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh, American Journal of Environ- mental Protection, 2013.2(2):pp. 58–63. doi:10.11648/j.ajep.20130202.15 http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo.aspx?
journalid=163{&}doi=10.11648/j.ajep.20130202.15
[40] Halder P, Paul N, Hoque M, Hoque A, Parvez M, Rahman H and Ali M,Municipal solid waste and its management in Rajshahi city, Bangladesh: A source of energy, International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, 2014.4(1):pp. 168–175 [41] Islam MS, Yeasmin T, Islam MH and Al-Amin MM,Assessing the Environmental
Effects of Solid Waste in Barisal City of Bangladesh, in Proceedings of the Waste Safe 20154thInternational Conference on Solid Waste Management in the Devel- oping Countries
[42] Ahmed A and Huq-Hussain S, Solid waste management system of Narayanganj city: An environmental study, Journal of Soil Science and Environmental Manage- ment, 2011.2(8):pp. 212–219
[43] Jalil MA, Ahmed MF, Ahmed F, Ali MA, Yasin SJM and Hoque MS, Up-grading of Matuail solid waste disposal site in Bangladesh to a sani- tary landfill, International Journal of Waste Resources, 2017. 07(03):p. 49.
doi:10.4172/2252-5211-C1-005
https://www.omicsonline.org/conference-proceedings/
recycling-expo-2017-scientifictracks-abstracts.digital
[44] Islam KMN,Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Generation in Bangladesh: Possible Scenarios to Generate Renewable Electricity in Dhaka and Chittagong City, Jour- nal of Renewable Energy, 2016.2016:pp. 1–16. doi:10.1155/2016/1712370 https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jre/2016/1712370/
[45] Sarkar MSI and Bhuyan S, Analysis of Physical and Chemical Composition of the Solid Waste in Chittagong City, Journal of Industrial Pollution Control, 2018.
34(1):pp. 1984–1990
[46] El-Fadel M, Findikakis AN and Leckie JO,Environmental Impacts of Solid Waste Landfilling, Journal of Environmental Management, 1997.50:pp. 1–25
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0301479785701314
[47] Themelis NJ and Ulloa PA, Methane generation in landfills, Renewable Energy, 2007.32(7):pp. 1243–1257. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2006.04.020
[48] Nguyen P, Kuruparan P and Visvanathan C,Anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste as a treatment prior to landfill, Bioresource Technology, 2007. 98(2):pp.
380–387. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2005.12.018
[49] Khalid A, Arshad M, Anjum M, Mahmood T and Dawson L, The anaerobic di- gestion of solid organic waste, Waste Management, 2011. 31(8):pp. 1737–1744.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.021
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.021
[50] Lastella G, Testa C, Cornacchia G, Notornicola M, Voltasio F and Sharma VK, Anaerobic digestion of semi-solid organic waste: biogas production and its pu- rification, Energy Conversion and Management, 2002. 43(1):pp. 63–75. doi:
10.1016/S0196-8904(01)00011-5
[51] Lata K, Rajeshwari KV, Pant DC and Kishore VV, Volatile fatty acid production during anaerobic mesophilic digestion of tea and vegetable market wastes, World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2002. 18(6):pp. 589–592. doi:10.
1023/A:1016314903817
[52] Titirici MM, Thomas A and Antonietti M, Back in the black: hydrothermal carbonization of plant material as an efficient chemical process to treat the CO2 problem?, New J Chem, 2007.31(6):pp. 787–789. doi:10.1039/B616045J https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2007/NJ/b616045j#
!divAbstract
[53] Canada E,Technical Document on Municipal Waste Organics Processing, Techni- cal report, 2013
[54] Park C, Lee C, Kim S, Chen Y and Chase HA, Upgrading of anaerobic diges- tion by incorporating two different hydrolysis processes, Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 2005.100(2):pp. 164–167. doi:10.1263/jbb.100.164
[55] Charles W, Walker L and Cord-Ruwisch R, Effect of pre-aeration and inocu- lum on the start-up of batch thermophilic anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste, Bioresource Technology, 2009. 100(8):pp. 2329–2335. doi:10.1016/j.
biortech.2008.11.051
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.11.051
[56] Ward AJ, Hobbs PJ, Holliman PJ and Jones DL,Optimisation of the anaerobic di- gestion of agricultural resources, Bioresource Technology, 2008.99(17):pp. 7928–
7940. arXiv:arXiv:1011.1669v3,doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.02.044 [57] Gofran MA, Status of biogas technology in Bangladesh, (accessed March 28,
2019),https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-2631
[58] Bangladesh Biogas Development Foundation, (accessed March 28, 2019), http:
//bbdf.org/allpage.php?page=visson
[59] Biogas Technology, (accessed March 28, 2019), http://bbdf.org/allpage.
php?page=tech
[60] Platt B, Goldstein N, Coker C and Brown S,State of Composting in the US - What, Why, Where & How, Technical report, 2014,doi:10.1108/MHSI-07-2013-0028.
doi:10.1108/MHSI-07-2013-0028
[61] Saer A, Lansing S, Davitt NH and Graves RE,Life cycle assessment of a food waste composting system: Environmental impact hotspots, Journal of Cleaner Production, 2013.52:pp. 234–244. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.03.022
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.03.022
[62] Jara-Samaniego J, P´erez-Espinosa A, L´opez M, Moral R, Bustamante M, P´erez- Murcia M, Paredes C, L´opez-Lluch D and Gavilanes-Ter´an I,Composting as sus- tainable strategy for municipal solid waste management in the Chimborazo Region, Ecuador: Suitability of the obtained composts for seedling production, Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016.141:pp. 1349–1358. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.
09.178
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.178
[63] Agency USEP,Types of Composting and Understanding the Process
[64] Jr FCM, Forney LJ, Huang AJ, Drew S, Czuprenski M, Lindeberg JD and Reddy CA, Effects of Turning Frequency , Leaves to Grass Mix Ratio and Windrow vs . Pile Configuration on the Composting of Yard Trimmings, Compost Science &
Utilization, 1996.4(1):pp. 26–43. doi:10.1080/1065657X.1996.10701816 [65] Platt B,GROWING LOCAL FERTILITY: A GUIDE TO COMMUNITY COMPOST-
ING, Technical report, 2014
[66] Rahman MH, Waste Concern : A Decentralized Community-based composting through public-private-community partnership, Technical report, United Nations Development Program, Growing Inclusive Markets, 2011
[67] Rouse J, Composting in Dhaka, Bangladesh, in Sustainable Composting: Case Studies and guidelines for developing countries, Ch. 6, WEDC, Loughborough University, 2004. pp. 51–61
[68] Zurbr¨ugg C, Drescher S, Rytz I, Sinha AHMM and Enayetullah I, Decen- tralised composting in Bangladesh , a win-win situation for all stakeholders, Re- sources, Conservation and Recycling, 2005. 43:pp. 281–292. doi:10.1016/j.
resconrec.2004.06.005
[69] Enayetullah I, Sinha AHMM and Lehtonen I,Bangladesh Waste Database 2014, Technical report, 2014
[70] Wei Y, Li J, Shi D, Liu G, Zhao Y and Shimaoka T,Environmental challenges im- peding the composting of biodegradable municipal solid waste: A critical review, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2017. 122:pp. 51–65. arXiv:arXiv:
1011.1669v3,doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.01.024 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.01.024
[71] Schlosser O, Huyard A, Rybacki D and Do Quang Z,Protection of the vehicle cab environment against bacteria, fungi and endotoxins in composting facilities, Waste Management, 2012. 32(6):pp. 1106–1115. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2012.01.
013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.01.013
[72] Richard TL and Woodbury PB,The impact of separation on heavy metal contami- nants in municipal solid waste composts, Biomass and Bioenergy, 1992.3(3-4):pp.
195–211. doi:10.1016/0961-9534(92)90026-M
[73] WASTE TO ENERGY A Technical Review of Municipal Solid Waste Thermal Treat- ment Practices, Technical report, Stantec Consulting Ltd., 2011
[74] Michaels T,The 2010 ERC Directory of Waste-to-Energy Plants, Technical report, 2010
[75] Municipal Solid Waste in The United States: 2011 Facts and figures, Technical re- port, Office of Solid Waste, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2013 [76] M¨unster M and Meibom P,Optimization of use of waste in the future energy system,
Energy, 2011.36(3):pp. 1612–1622. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.12.070 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0360544210007760?via%3Dihub
[77] Kokalj F and Samec N, in Advances in Internal Combustion Engines and Fuel Technologies.doi:10.5772/55497. doi:10.5772/55497, [link]
[78] Grillo LM, Municipal solid waste (MSW) combustion plants, in Waste to Energy Conversion Technology, Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013. pp. 72–97,doi:10.
1533/9780857096364.2.72. doi:10.1533/9780857096364.2.72
[79] SCHLESINGE MD, Fuels and Furnaces, in Mark’s Standard Handbook for Me- chanical Engineers, 10th Edition, eds. Avallone EA and III TB, Ch. 7, McGraw- Hill. pp. 7–6
[80] Velzy C and Grillo L, Waste to Energy Combustion, in Handbook of Energy Ef- ficiency and Renewable Energy, eds. Keith F and Goswami D, CRC Press, 1st edition, 2007. pp. 24–1
[81] Agency USEP, Energy Recovery from the Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), (accessed February 28, 2019), https://www.epa.gov/
smm/energy-recovery-combustion-municipal-solid-waste-msw#
EnergyRecovery
[82] Malkow T, Novel and innovative pyrolysis and gasification technologies for en- ergy efficient and environmentally sound MSW disposal, Waste Management, 2004.
24(1):pp. 53–79. doi:10.1016/S0956-053X(03)00038-2
[83] Liu G, Liao Y, Guo S, Ma X, Zeng C and Wu J,Thermal behavior and kinetics of municipal solid waste during pyrolysis and combustion process, Applied Thermal Engineering, 2016. 98:pp. 400–408. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.
12.067
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.067
[84] Yusoff MHM and Zakaria R,Combustion of municipal solid waste in fixed bed com- bustor for energy recovery, Journal of Applied Sciences, 2012. 12(11):pp. 1176–
1180. doi:10.3923/jas.2012.1176.1180
[85] Ruth LA,Energy from municipal solid waste: A comparison with coal combustion technology, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 1998.24(6):pp. 545–564.
doi:10.1016/S0360-1285(98)00011-2
[86] Leckner B,Process aspects in combustion and gasification Waste-to-Energy (WtE) units, Waste Management, 2015.37:pp. 13–25. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2014.
04.019
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.04.019
[87] Arena U and Gregorio FD,Element partitioning in combustion- and gasification- based waste-to-energy units, Waste Management, 2013. 33(5):pp. 1142–1150.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.035
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.035
[88] Islam KN,Municipal solid waste to energy generation: An approach for enhancing climate co-benefits in the urban areas of Bangladesh, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018.81:pp. 2472–2486. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.053 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.053
[89] Lu X, Jordan B and Berge ND,Thermal conversion of municipal solid waste via hydrothermal carbonization: Comparison of carbonization products to products from current waste management techniques, Waste Management, 2012.32(7):pp.
1353–1365. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2012.02.012 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.02.012
[90] Funke A and Ziegler F,Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: A summary and discussion of chemical mecha- nisms for process engineering, Biofuels, Bioprod- ucts and Biorefining, 2010.4:pp. 160–177. doi:10.1002/bbb.198
[91] Berge ND, Ro KS, Mao J, Flora JRV, Chappell MA and Bae S, Hydrothermal Carbonization of Municipal Waste Streams: Supporting Information, 2011:pp.
5696–5703
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/es2004528/suppl{_}file/
es2004528{_}si{_}001.pdf
[92] Libra JA, Ro KS, Kammann C, Funke A, Berge ND, Neubauer Y, Titirici MM, F¨uhner C, Bens O, Kern J and Emmerich KH, Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass residuals : A comparative review of the chemistry , processes and ... Hy- drothermal carbonization of biomass residuals : a comparative review of the chem- istry , processes and, Biofuels, 2011.2(1):pp. 71–106. doi:10.4155/bfs.10.81 [93] M¨akel¨a M, Benavente V and Fullana A,Hydrothermal carbonization of lignocel- lulosic biomass: Effect of process conditions on hydrochar properties, Applied Energy, 2015.155:pp. 576–584. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06.022