Psycholinguistic Analysis On Learning Disorder Of Dyslexic Children

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APPENDICES

ANGKET WAWANCARA PENELITIAN UNTUK GURU/TERAPIS ANAK DENGAN MASALAH KESULITAN BELAJAR (DISLEKSIA) – FIRST

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS ON DYSLEXIC CHILD

RENY ANDARI (110705023)

I. PETUNJUK WAWANCARA

1. Sebelum anda menjawab daftar pertanyaan yang telah disiapkan terlebih dahulu isi identitas yang telah tersedia.

2. Jawablah daftar wawancara ini dengan jujur dan penuh ketelitian karena jawaban Bapak/Ibu Guru akan membantu kelengkapan data yang penulis butuhkan. Dan sebelumnya tidak lupa saya ucapkan terima kasih atas segala bantuannya.

II. IDENTITAS GURU/TERAPIS

1. Nama :

2. Nama Sekolah/Tempat Pelatihan Khusus :

III. DAFTAR PERTANYAAN (Sumber: Abdurrahman, 2003)

1. Apakah anak tersebut mengalami kesulitan dalam membaca dan menulis? a. Ya

b. Tidak

2. Jika ya, apakah anak tersebut sering tertukar huruf antara huruf “b” dan “d” atau “p” dan “q” ketika membaca atau menulis?

a. Ya b. Tidak

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a. Ya b. Tidak

4. Apakah anak tersebut juga mengalami kesulitan saat menghitung terutama perkalian?

a. Ya b. Tidak

5. Apakah anak tersebut lebih menggemari pelajaran yang menggunakan otak kanan seperti menggambar, bernyanyi, atau melukis?

a. Ya b. Tidak

6. Apakah di sekolah/tempat kursus anda terdapat anak yang mengalami gangguan belajar seperti membaca, menulis, atau mengeja huruf (disleksia) dan dalam rentang usia berapakah rata-rata anak yang mengalami kesulitan belajar tersebut?

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7. Apakah anak tersebut pernah mengikuti proses belajar di sekolah lain? -

8. Langkah-langkah apa saja yang diambil oleh guru dalam meningkatkan kemampuan belajar anak dengan kesulitan belajar?

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9. Menurut anda, metode belajar apa yang paling efektif untuk anak dengan gangguan belajar? Berikan alasannya.

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10.Apa kesulitan-kesulitan yang sering dialami dalam mengatasi anak yang mengalami kesulitan belajar?

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-APPENDICES

ANGKET PENELITIAN LANJUTAN UNTUK GURU/TERAPIS ANAK DISLEKSIA

(SECOND INFORMAL ASSESSMENT)

RENY ANDARI REG. NO. 110705023

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

II. IDENTITAS GURU/TERAPIS

3. Nama Guru :

4. Nama Sekolah/Tempat Pelatihan Khusus : Medan Teraphy Kids Center III. DAFTAR PERTANYAAN

TYPES AND DIFFICULTIES (DATA SOURCE)

Reading Dyslexia/Reading Difficulty

Menurut Mercer (1983: 309) ada empat kelompok karakteristik kesulitan belajar membaca, yaitu berkenaan dengan kebiasaan membaca, kekeliruan mengenal kata, kekeliruan pemahaman, dan gejala-gejala serbaneka.

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menyebarkan angket kedua. Angket ini berupa daftar pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijadikan sebagai sumber data utama. Data yang didapat diisi oleh tenaga pengajar/guru di Medan Teraphy Kids Center. Data ini sangat mendukung untuk hasil penelitian penulis.

Daftar Kekeliruan Membaca Lisan Siswa/Siswi Medan Teraphy Kids Center (Sumber: Abdurrahman 2003: 210-212)

No Jenis Kekeliruan Cek Keterangan

1 Tidak dapat melafalkan semua huruf vokal (a, i, u, e, o). 2 Tidak dapat melafalkan beberapa huruf vokal.

3 Tidak dapat melafalkan semua huruf konsonan (b, c, d, f, g, h , j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z).

4 Tidak dapat melafalkan beberapa huruf konsonan. 5 Tidak dapat melafalkan huruf diftong (ny, ng).

6 Tidak dapat melafalkan gabungan huruf konsonan – vokal (ba, pa, ...).

7 Tidak dapat melafalkan gabungan huruf diftong – vokal (nya, ngu, ...).

8 Tidak dapat melafalkan vokal rangkap (ia, oi, ua, ...).

9 Tidak dapat melafalkan gabungan konsonan vokal – konsonan (ba-pak, ka-pal, pas-ti, ...).

10 Tidak dapat melafalkan gabungan vokal – konsonan (as-pal, ir-na, ...)

11 Tidak dapat membedakan huruf yang bentuknya hampir sama (b-d, p-q, m-n-u-w).

12 Penghilangan huruf atau kata (“bunga mawar itu merah” dibaca “bunga itu merah” , “bapak membaca buku” dibaca “bapak baca buku”).

13 Penyisipan kata (“rumah paman di Semarang” dibaca “ rumah paman ada di Semarang”).

14 Penggantian kata, makna tetap (“ayah menulis surat” dibaca “bapak menulis surat”).

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16 Pengucapan kata yang salah, makna sama (“hati saya senang” dibaca “hati saya seneng”).

17 Pengucapan kata yang salah, tidak bermakna (“mama beli nenas” dibaca mama beli memas”).

18 Pengucapan kata dengan bantuan guru (“kuda itu lari kencang” dibaca “kuda itu lari .... kencang”).

19 Pengulangan (“Wati main bola” dibaca “Wati ma-ma-ma-in bo-bo-la”).

20 Pembalikan kalimat, subjek, predikat, objek (“baju saya dicuci bibi” dibaca “baju saya bibi dicuci”)

21 Tidak memperhatikan tanda baca (“bapak dan ibu pergi ke kantor. Saya pergi ke sekolah” dibaca “bapak dan ibu pergi ke kantor saya pergi ke sekolah”).

22 Membetulkan kesalahan sendiri “duku itu manis” dibaca “buku itu manis” , dibetulkan sendiri “duku itu manis”).

23 Ragu-ragu dalam membaca (“Iwan bermain layang-layang” dibaca “Iwan ... bermain ... layang ... layang”).

24 Membaca tersendat-sendat (“bu Ita guru Nani” dibaca “bu i ... tagu ... gu ... ru na ... na ... ni”).

25 Tidak dapat mengurutkan susunan bacaan berita.

Writing Dyslexia/Writing Difficulty

Menurut Lerner (1985: 402), ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi kemampuan anak untuk menulis yaitu motorik, perilaku, persepsi, memori, kemampuan melaksanakan cross modal, menggunakan tangan yang dominan, dan kemampuan memahami instruksi.

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menyebarkan angket kedua. Angket ini berupa daftar pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijadikan sebagai sumber data utama. Data yang didapat diisi oleh tenaga pengajar/guru di Medan Teraphy Kids Center. Data ini sangat mendukung untuk hasil penelitian penulis.

Berbagai Macam Cara Anak Berkesulitan Belajar dalam Memegang Pensil untuk Menulis. (Hornsby, 1984: 66)

(Sumber: Abdurrahman 2003: 235-237)

Pertanyaan:

1. Berdasarkan gambar di atas, cara memegang pensil yang mana yang lebih sering dilakukan oleh anak? (boleh pilih lebih dari 1)

Jawaban:

2. Apakah anak menulis dari kiri ke kanan? a. Ya b. Tidak

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a. Ya b. Tidak

4. Apakah guru mengajar dengan cara menulis kata-kata dari papan tulis dan anak akan menyalin ke buku atau kertas?

a. Ya b. Tidak

5. Apakah guru mengajarkan kepada anak untuk menulis pada garis yang tepat? a. Ya b. Tidak

Daftar Cek untuk Mengukur Kemampuan Menulis Ekspresif yang Dikembangkan oleh Poteet (Lovitt, 1989: 225)

(Sumber: Abdurrahman 2003: 235-237)

ST = anak sangat terampil C = anak dapat melakukan hanya jika diberi contoh T = anak cukup terampil R = anak membutuhkan remediasi

Tulisan ST T C R Keterangan

I. Keindahan Tulisan A. Jarak pada halaman B. Jarak antarkalimat C. Jarak tiap kata D. Jarak tiap huruf E. Kemiringan huruf F. Bentuk huruf

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III. Tata Bahasa A. Huruf kapital

1. Kata benda nama diri 2. Kata sifat yang tepat 3. Kata pertama tiap kalimat 4. Nama Tempat

5. Nama Negara B. Pemberian tanda baca

1. Titik 2. Koma 3. Tanda kutip 4. Tanda tanya 5. Tanda seru 6. Tanda titik dua 7. Tanda penghubung 8. Tanda kurung C. Sintaksis

1. Bagian-bagian percakapan a. Kata kerja

b. Kata benda c. Kata ganti d. Kata sifat e. Kata keterangan f. Kata depan g. Kata penghubung h. Kata seru

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Metode Pengajaran Membaca bagi Anak Berkesulitan Belajar (Sumber: Abdurrahman 2003: 217-219)

Sebelum menjawab pertanyaan di bawah, guru diwajibkan membaca tiga contoh metode yang akan dijelaskan oleh penulis dengan seksama.

1) Metode Fernald

Fernald telah mengembangkan suatu metode pengajaran membaca multisensoris yang sering dikenal pula sebgai metode VAKT (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile). Metode ini digunakan materi bacaan yang dipilih dari kata-kata yang diucapkan oleh anak, dan tiap kata diajarkan secara utuh. Metode ini memiliki empat tahapan. Tahapan pertama, guru menulis kata yang hendak dipelajari di atas kertas dengan krayon. Selanjutnya anak menelusuri tulisan tersebut dengan jarinya. Pada saat menelusuri tulisan tersebut, anak melihat tulisan, dan mengucapkannya dengan keras. Proses semacam ini diulang-ulang sehingga anak dapat menulis kata tersebut dengan benar tanpa melihat contoh. Pada tahapan kedua, anak tidak terlalu lama diminta menelusuri tulisan-tulisan dengan jari, tetapi mempelajari tulisan guru dengan melihat guru menulis, sambil mengucapkannya. Anak-anak mempelajari kata-kata baru pada tahapan ketiga, dengan melihat tulisan yang ditulis di papan tulis atau tulisan cetak, dan mengucapkan kata tersebut sebelum menulis. Pada tahapan ini anak mulai membaca tulisan dari buku. Pada tahapan keempat, anak mampu mengingat kata-kata yang dicetak atau bagian-bagian dari kata yang telah dipelajari.

2) Metode Gillingham

Metode Gillingham merupakan pendekatan terstruktur taraf tinggi yang memerlukan lima jam pelajaran selama dua tahun. Aktivitas pertama diarahkan pada belajar berbagai bunyi huruf dan perpaduan huruf-huruf tersebut. Anak menggunakan teknik menjiplak untuk mempelajari berbagai huruf. Bunyi-bunyi tunggal huruf selanjutnya dikombinasikan ke dalam kelompok-kelompok yang lebih besar dan kemudian program fonik diselesaikan. 3) Metode Analisis Glass

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yang berbeda. Kedua, pemecahan sandi mendahului membaca. Pemecahan sandi didefinisikan sebagai menentukan bunyi yang berhubungan dengan suatu kata tertulis secara tepat.

Membaca didefinisikan sebagai menurunkan makna dari kata-kata yang berbentuk tulisan. Jika anak tidak dapat melakukan pemecahan sandi tulisan secara efisien, maka mereka tidak akan belajar membaca. Melalui metode analisis Glass, anak dibimbing untuk mengenal kelompok-kelompok huruf sambil melihat kata secara keseluruhan. Metode ini menekankan pada latihan auditoris dan visual yang terpusat pada kata yang sedang dipelajari. Materi yang diperlukan untuk mengajar mengenal kelompok-kelompok huruf dapat dibuat oleh guru. Secara esensial, kelompok huruf dapat dibuat pada kartu berukuran 3x15cm. Pada tiap karu tersebut, guru menuliskan secara baik kata-kata terpilih yang telah menjadi perbendaharaan kata anak. Kelompok kata didefinisikan sebagai dua atau lebih huruf yang merupakan satu kata utuh, menggambarkan suatu bunyi yang relatif tetap. Dalam bahasa indonesia, kelompok huruf yang merupakan satu kata yang hanya terdiri dari satu suku kata sangat jarang. Kata “tak” misalnya, sesungguhnya merupakan kependekan dari kata “tidak”, dan kata “pak” atau “bu” sesungguhnya kependekan dari kata bapak dan ibu. Dengan demikian, penerapan metode analisis Glass dalam bahasa indonesia akan berbentuk suku kata, misalnya kata bapak terdiri dari dua kelompok huruf “ba” dan “pak”.

Seperti dikutip oleh Lerner (1988: 386), Glass mengemukakan adanya empat langkah dalam mengajarkan kata, yaitu:

(1) Mengidentifikasi keseluruhan kata, huruf, dan bunyi kelompok-kelompok huruf. (2) Mengucapkan bunyi-bunyi kelompok kata dan huruf.

(3) Menyajikan kepada anak, huruf atau kelompok huruf dan meminta untuk mengucapkannya.

(4) Guru mengambil beberapa huruf pada kata tertulis dan anak diminta mengucapkan kelompok huruf yang masih tersisa.

Pertanyaan:

1. Dari penjelasan metode-metode pengajaran tersebut, metode manakah yang pernah/selalu anda gunakan untuk mengajar anak dengan gangguan belajar? (boleh memilih dua)

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2. Menurut anda, metode manakah yang cukup efektif untuk membantu anak dengan gangguan belajar? (boleh memilih dua)

a. Metode Fernald b. Metode Gillingham c. Metode Analisis Glass

3. Dari metode yang anda gunakan, apakah anak dapat menerima dengan baik pelajaran yang diberikan?

a. Ya b. Tidak

4. Dalam kisaran jangka waktu berapa lama anak tersebut bisa membaca dan menulis dengan lancar?

Jawaban:

5. Tuliskan pendapat anda tentang salah satu dari ketiga metode yang dijelaskan sebelumnya, manakah metode yang paling efektif menurut anda? Mengapa?

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APPENDICES

(PERCEPTION)

II. IDENTITAS GURU/TERAPIS

1. Nama Guru :

Pada angket sebelumnya, telah diketahui bahwa terdapat anak yang memiliki gejala atau sindrom gangguan belajar disleksia, untuk meneliti lebih lanjut, penulis mengharapkan agar guru menjawab pertanyaan hanya berdasarkan analisis anak disleksia dan sesuai dengan ciri-ciri anak yang bersangkutan (disleksia). (Sumber: Abdurrahman, 2003: 151-155)

1. Apakah anak selalu menulis ejaan dengan salah meskipun telah dilakukan berulang kali?

A) Ya B) Tidak

2. Tipe gaya belajar mana yang paling mudah dipahami dan diminati oleh anak dengan gangguan belajar/disleksia (boleh pilih lebih dari 1)

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3. Persepsi visual sangat mempengaruhi anak dalam belajar membaca. Anak dengan gangguan persepsi visual akan mengalami kesulitan untuk membedakan bentuk-bentuk geometri, huruf, atau kata. Apakah anak sering mengalami kesulitan seperti yang dijelaskan diatas?

A) Ya B) Tidak

4. Apakah anak kesulitan dalam hubungan keruangan (spasial) atau jarak antar huruf dan ktata ketika membaca dan menulis?

A) Ya B) Tidak

5. Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan dalam membedakan suatu objek ke objek yang lain? Misal, anak kesulitan membedakan kelinci bertelinga satu diantara kelinci-kelinci yang mempunyai dua telinga, atau kesulitan dalam membedakan bentuk huruf, misal huruf m dan n.

A) Ya B) Tidak

6. Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan untuk membedakan suatu objek dari latar belakang yang mengelilingi?

A) Ya B) Tidak

7. Apakah anak mengalami gangguan dalam mengingat dan mengidentifikasi suatu objek?

A) Ya B) Tidak

8. Apakah anak keliru ketika membaca satu kata dengan huruf yang tidak lengkap? Misal, dalam satu kata dihilangkan beberapa huruf.

A) Ya B) Tidak

9. Pada saat awal pengenalan objek kepada anak, apakah anak mampu mengenal sifat dan mengingat bentuk atau ciri-ciri berbagai objek tersebut?

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10.Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan saat mengubah huruf atau susunan huruf? Misal, huruf p diubah menjadi huruf q atau b dan juga d, kata “ibu” menjadi “ubi”, kata “lupa” menjadi “palu”

A) Ya B) Tidak

11.Apakah anak mengalami gangguan dalam meraba huruf atau suatu objek? Misal, membedakan permukaan kasar dan halus, jari mana yang digunakan untuk meraba, atau mengidentifikasi huruf apa yang ditulis di punggung atau tangan.

A) Ya B) Tidak

12.Persepsi auditoris juga memegang peranan yang sangat penting dalam belajar. Anak yang berkesulitan belajar membaca memiliki kesulitan audioris, linguistik, dan fonologis. Anak tersebut tidak mampu memahami atau menginterprestasikan segala sesuatu yang didengar. (Lerner, 1988: 285)

Dari penjelasan di atas, apakah anak juga mengalami kesulitan dalam memahami atau menginterprestasikan segala sesuatu yang di dengar?

A) Ya B) Tidak

13.Apakah anak tidak dapat mengingat dan membedakan bunyi berbagai kata? A) Ya B) Tidak

14.Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan atau tidak dapat menggunakan prinsip alfabetik yang diperlukan untuk belajar fonik dan membaca kata-kata?

A) Ya B) Tidak

15.Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan dalam membedakan kata kakak dengan bapak atau ibu dengan abu?

A) Ya B) Tidak

16.Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan ketika diperintahkan untuk melakukan 3 aktivitas sekaligus? Misal, menutup jendela, lalu membuka pintu, dan meletakkan kotak di atas meja.

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17.Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan dalam mnegingat urutan alfabet, nama-nama hari, atau nama-nama bulan?

A) Ya B) Tidak

18.Apakah anak mengalami kesulitan dalam memadukan beberapa huruf untuk menjadi satu kata? Misal, anak kesulitan menggabungkan huruf m-a-i-n untuk membentuk kata “main”

A) Ya B) Tidak

19.Apakah anak sering melakukan kesalahan dalam menulis? Misal, melakukan penghilangan huruf seperti “tebal” menjadi “tbal”

A) Ya B) Tidak

20.Kesalahan apa yang paling sering dilakukan anak ketika menulis ejaan kata? (boleh pilih lebih dari 1)

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APPENDICES

(METHOD)

II. IDENTITAS GURU/TERAPIS

3. Nama Guru :

METHOD (DATA SOURCE) (Sumber: Abdurrahman, 2003)

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1. Apakah guru menulis huruf dan menyebutkan bunyi huruf tersebut secara langsung satu per satu?

A) Ya B) Tidak

2. Apakah anak mempraktekkan rabaan melalui sentuhan jari tangan dengan membentuk huruf dan menyebutkan bunyi huruf tersebut untuk mengetahui karakter dari huruf tersebut? (taktil)

A) Ya B) Tidak

3. Apakah guru menggabungkan huruf konsonan dengan huruf vokal lalu menyebutkan bunyinya?

A) Ya B) Tidak

4. Apakah dengan metode di atas, murid dapat membedakan perbedaan antara huruf vokal diantara huruf konsonan? (misal: menyebutkan huruf “E” dan “e” diantara huruf “b” , “d” , “k”, dan lain-lain)

A) Ya B) Tidak

5. Apakah guru mengajar dengan metode mendengarkan rekaman untuk anak disleksia? (misal: murid mendengarkan rekaman sambil membaca teks rekaman tersebut)

A) Ya B) Tidak

6. Apakah anak belajar menulis dengan menulis berulang kali dengan jarak spasi yang berbeda hingga jarak spasi dan besar tulisan tidak terlalu besar atau kecil?

A) Ya B) Tidak

7. Untuk membentuk sebuah kata, apakah guru mengajarkan kepada anak disleksia dengan menggabungkan beberapa huruf dari jumlah yang kecil hingga membentuk sebuah kata? A) Ya B) Tidak

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9. Adakah satu tahap yang selalu anda gunakan untuk anak disleksia? (hanya pilih 1 tahap) -

10. Menurut pengalaman anda, tahap mana saja yang paling efektif dan dapat berhasil membantu anak disleksia? (boleh pilih lebih dari 1)

-

11. Adakah tahapan lainnya (selain yang dituliskan di atas) yang anda gunakan untuk mengajar anak disleksia? (sebutkan tahapannya jika ada)

-

12. Apakah ada kesulitan-kesulitan yang dialami ketika menggunakan tahapan mengajar di atas? (sebukan jika ada)

-

13. Bagaimana pendapat anda tentang anak-anak disleksia yang selama ini pernah anda ajari? -

Jawaban anda sangat membantu saya dalam menganalisis data untuk penelitian skripsi

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Smith, Frank. (2004). Notes To Chapter 13, Learning About Written Language. Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Reading and Learning To Read. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 302-324.

Smith, Frank. (2004). Notes To Preface, Pp. Vii-Xii: Psycholinguistics And Cognitive Science. Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Reading and Learning To Read. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 233- 238.

Somantri, Sutjihati. T. 2007. Psikologi Anak Luar Biasa. Bandung: Refika Aditama. Stein, John. 2009. Wobbles, Warbles and Fish - the Neural Magnocellular Basis of

Dyslexia. Retrieved from

Understand Dyslexia (2006). Fact Sheet 19. Lucid Research. Retrieved from

Ward, Louise Brazeau. 2005. DYSLEXIA AND THE UNIVERSITY. Canada: Canadian Dyslexia Center (CDC) Inc. Retrieved from http;//www.dyslexiacenter.ca/English/files/University and Dyslexia.pdf (September 2015)

Wilmshurst, Linda. 2005. Essential of Child Psychopathology. United Stated of America: John Wiley and Sons

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

3.1 Research Design

The method that used in this research is qualitative method.The qualitative method is a method that produces descriptive data, such as the written and unwritten words about the individual character, condition or a symptom of the certain groups that can be analyze (Lexy, 2001:6).

This research described language disorder which concerned on language learning and then it focused on the types of difficulties on language disorder of the dyslexic child. After that, it described the methods that were applied to overcome the difficulties above. The research is qualitative approach because it analyzed the types of difficulties on language disorder of the dyslexic character and the methods that were applied to overcome the difficulties.

In this research, Behaviorism theory by Skinner (1905) has been used in analyzing the psycholinguistics. The cerebellar theory of dyslexia is also suitable in analyzing child’s learning disorder. This study also use Gillingham and Stillman (1997), Levinson (1994), and Lerner‟s theories (1988) to lead in doing research. Those data could help to draw the conclusion and suggestion of this research.

3.2 Sources of Data

The object of this research is Kidz Smile TherapyCenter for Kids and the subjectisthe dyslexic children. According to the teachers, the dyslexic childproduce somemistakes whether in writing, reading, arithmetic operation or remembering something in sequenze.

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3.3 Data Collecting Method

The data are collected by observation, transcribing, and documentation.Because the main data are taken from questionnaire, the children have been observed by asking the teachers use the questionnaire based on the symptomps of dyslexia. In this case, the writer use DSM-IV-TR (2000), Abdurrahman (2003: 209-232), Hornsby (1984: 66)and Lovitt (1989: 225) as the reference to dyslexia syndroms. The questionnaire’s result also has been read many times and some teacher also have been asked directly to understand the phenomenon. After doingobservation, the quitionerhad been trascribed into English in order to select thewords and letters easily as many as possible related to research problems. In addition, the documentation has been conducted by looking for orgathering the secondary data from textbook, journals, abstracts, and articles whichappropriate with research problem.

3.4 Data Analysis Method

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

4.1 Data Analysis

In data presentation and analysis, the data presented are the table of questionnaire’s result which is answered by the teachersin Kidz Smile Therapy Center for Kidsand answered based ontheir observation and experiences on five dyslexic children. The explained data is compiled based on the parts of questionnaires. Those are in order to make readers easy in understanding the data without reading the questionnaiers.

Besides, this research analysis only used questionnaires because of the direct research and analysis are not allowed because terms of privacy. Finally, it presents the data analysis using Skinner (1905), Gillingham (1997), Levinson (1994) and Lerner‟s theories (1988).

The data description is divided into two sections. The first is types of dyslexia suffered by children in Kidz Smile Therapy Centerfor Kids and the second is methods used to overcome the language learning difficulties.

4.1.1 Types of Dyslexia Suffered by Children in Kidz Smile Therapy Center for Kids

This section is divided into some tables and parts. The first part consists of the perception of five dyslexic children in visual perception, auditory perception and tactile and kinesthetic perception.The second part consists of the first informal assessment. The third part consists of informal assessment on fivedyslexicchildren in reading and writing difficulties. And the last part consists of the method use to overcome the difficulties (as cited in Abdurrahman, 2003).

Perception

In doing this analysis perception, the theory used is the perception theory by Lerner (1988) (as cited in Abdurrahman, 2003: 151-156)

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1.

Do an error writing repeatedly.

-

Do an error writing repeatedly.

-

Do an error writing repeatedly. 2. Prefers to listening. Prefers to listening. Prefers to reading and listening. Prefers to listening. Prefers to reading. 3. Hard to distinguish shapes, letters, or words. Hard to distinguish shapes, letters, or words. Hard to distinguish shapes, letters, or words. - Hard to distinguish shapes, letters, or words. 4.

Has a spasial difficulties on reading and writing.

- -

Has a spasial difficulties on reading and writing. 5. Hard to distinguish an object to another object. Hard to distinguish an object to another object. Hard to distinguish an object to another object. Hard to distinguish an object to another object. Hard to distinguish an object to another object. 6. Hard to distinguish an object from its surrounding background. Hard to distinguish an object from its surrounding background. Hard to distinguish an object from its surrounding background. Hard to distinguish an object from its surrounding background. - 7. Impaired in remembering and identify an object - Impaired in remembering and identify an object - Impaired in remembering and identify an object 8. Cannot read a

word with

Cannot read a word with

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incomplete letters. incomplete letters. incomplete letters. incomplete letters. incomplete letters. 9.

Not able to remember the shape of the object.

-

Not able to remember the shape of the object.

- -

10. - - -

Has a difficulty when changing the arrangement of letters. Has a difficulty when changing the arrangement of letters.

11. -

Impaired in identifying letters through touch or tactile - - Impaired in identifying letters through touch or tactile 12. Have difficulty in understanding everything heard Have difficulty in understandin g everything heard - - Have difficulty in understandin g everything heard

13. -

Cannot remember and

distinguish the sound of various words Cannot remember and distinguish the sound of various words Cannot remember and distinguish the sound of various words Cannot remember and distinguish the sound of various words 14. - Not able to

use the -

Not able to use the

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alphabetic principle needed to learn phonic. alphabetic principle needed to learn phonic. alphabetic principle needed to learn phonic. 15. Hard to differentiate the similar word. Hard to differentiate the similar word. Hard to differentiate the similar word. - Hard to differentiate the similar word.

16. -

Hard to understandin g the successive commands. Hard to understandin g the successive commands. Hard to understandin g the successive commands. Hard to understandin g the successive commands. 17. Hard to remember the order of alphabet, days, and months. Hard to remember the order of alphabet, days, and months. Hard to remember the order of alphabet, days, and months. - - 18. Hard to combine several letters into a word.

-

Hard to combine several letters into a word.

-

Hard to combine several letters into a word.

19. -

Often make mistakes in writing - - Often make mistakes in writing 20. Disappearanc

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Analysis:

In this case, the theory of perception used is Lerner’s theory (1988: 285) (as cited in Abdurrahman, 2003: 151–156). Datum I-V represent children in Kidz Smile Therapy Center for Kids who found suffered from dyslexia. In datum I, a child only applies two elements of auditory perception, they are phonological awareness and auditory memory. A child applies phonological awareness because she/he able to use the alphabetic principle that needed in phonic learning. Besides, a child applies auditory memory because she/he able to remember the order of alphabets, days, and months.

As shown as on the table above, a child in datum I only applies one element of visual perception that is object recognition because she/he able to change the arrangement of letters or words such as /p/ becomes /q/ or “ibu” becomes “ubi”. Besides, there is also found a tactile and kinesthetic percepition because a child not impaired in identifying letters through touch or tactile.

On the other hand, there are two of five elements on visual perception applied by child on datum II, they are visual closure and object recognition because a child able to remember and identify an object, she/he also recognize the shapes of that object and does not get a difficulty in changing letters or words arrangement. A child also applies only one of five elements on auditory perception, that is auditory blanding because she/he does not get a difficulty in combining letters into a single word such as m-a-i-n becomes “main”. Yet, the child in datum II does not apply tactile and kinesthetic perception at all because she/he impaired in identifying letters through touch or tactile.

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On the other hand, a child in datum IV applies three of five elements in visual perception, they are spasial relation, visual closure, and object recognition. This child also applies three of five elements in auditory perception, they are auditory discrimination, auditory sequencing, and auditory blanding. A child applies auditory discrimination to differentiate between some similar words such as “kakak” and “bapak” or “ibu” and “abu”. She/he also applies auditory sequencing and blanding to remember the order of alphabets, days and months, and combining some letters into a word. Besides, a child in datum IV also applies tactile and kinesthetic perception.

In the last data, a child in datum V only applies one of five elements in auditory perception, that is auditory sequencing and also applies two of five elements in visual perception, they are figure-ground discrimination to distinguish an object from its surrounding background.and visual closure to remember the shapes and characteristics of an object. Yet, this child does not apply tactile and kinesthetic perception.

First Informal Assessment

In this first assessment, the questions used are the basic question from the main characteristic of dyslexic children. The characteristics used are a summary from an informal assessment as written in Abdurrahman's book (2003, 204-208).

No. Datum I Datum II Datum III Datum IV Datum V

1.

Child has a difficulty in reading and writing.

Child has a difficulty in reading and writing. 2. Mixes up similar letters such as /b/ and /d/ or /p/ and /q/

Mixes up similar letters such as /b/ and /d/ or /p/ and /q/

- -

Mixes up similar letters such as /b/ and /d/ or /p/ and /q/

3. -

Flips over letters such as ‘ƧЯ’

- -

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instead of ‘RS’ in writing instead of ‘RS’ in writing 4. Preffers a

lesson that using the right brain. - - Preffers a lesson that using the right brain. Preffers a lesson that using the right brain. 5. Over 5 years

old

6 years old 5 years old Over 5 years old

Over 6 years old

6. Taught repeatedly Taught repeatedly Taught repeatedly Taught repeatedly Taught repeatedly Analysis:

As shown in the table, all of the data have a difficulty in reading and writing. In datum I, II and V, the children mix up similar letters such as /b/ and /d/ or /p/ and /q/. Moreover, they do mirror imaging because they are confused with the letters’ position either right-left or up-down. They do mirror imaging if they see similar form of letters such as b - d, m – w, p – q, and n – u. Those cause dyslexics mention wrong word and meaning, different word but similar meaning, or wrong word and no meaning (Abdurrahman, 2003:207).

In this case, they do not apply visual discrimination to differentiate between similar letters such as b - d, m – w, p – q, and n – u. They also cannot be ableto remember and identify some forms of alphabets. In short, Datum I, II and V experiences reading difficulty.

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In this first assessment, datum I, III, IV does not experience writing difficulties because they does not flip over letters such as ‘ƧЯ’ instead of ‘RS’ in writing. They also apply object recognation to differentiate between the letters. In this case, datum IV applies almost all elements in visual and auditory perceptions.

Children with dyslexia use their right brain more than left brain to process language information because of weakening function of corpus callosum (Letchumy, 2008: 117 and Ward, 2005: 4). As shown as on the table, datum I, IV and V prefer to learn a lesson that using the right brain, this does not close the possibility that children in these data are dyslexics.

Based on the results from the data above, all of the children on datum I-V were taught by methods of repetition Such as behaviorism theory by Skinner (1905). Children were taught by repeating the same material over and over again every day until the child is able to master the material. All teachers found this method is quite effective to help the children to remember all they had learned.

Informal Assessment in Reading and Writing Difficulties

This second informal assessment is divided into two section based on the difficulties. The result number 1-22 are the result from reading difficulty analysis and the result number 23-30 are the result from writing difficulty. The questions used are based on the main characteristic of dyslexic children. The characteristics used are a summary from an informal assessment as written in Abdurrahman's book (2003, 210-237).

1. Child cannot recognize some vowels. Child cannot recognize some vowels. - - Child cannot recognize all vowels. 2. Cannot recognize some consonants. Cannot recognize some consonants. - - Cannot recognize some consonants.

3. -

Cannot

recognize - -

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(ny, ng) (ny, ng)

4.

Not able to pronounce the combined between consonant and vowel. (ba, pa, ...)

- - -

5.

Not able to pronounce the combined between diphthong and vowel. (nya, ngu, ...)

- -

Not able to pronounce the combined between diphthong and vowel. (nya, ngu, ...)

6. -

Incapable of pronouncing two vowels. (ia, oi, ua, ...)

- -

Incapable of pronouncing two vowels. (ia, oi, ua, ...)

7.

Not able to pronounce the combined between consonant-vowel and consonant. (ba-pak) - - -

Not able to pronounce the combined between consonant-vowel and consonant. (ba-pak)

8. - - - -

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consonant. (as-pal) 9. Cannot recognize similar letters (b-d, p-q, m-n-u-w)

Cannot recognize similar letters (b-d, p-q, m-n-u-w) - - Cannot recognize similar letters (b-d, p-q, m-n-u-w)

10. -

Disappearanc es letters/words. - - Disappearanc es letters/words. 11. - Adding

letters/words. - -

Adding letters/words.

12. -

Do the replacement of

letters/words but still has the same meaning. - - Do the replacement of letters/words but still has the same meaning..

13. -

Do the replacement of letters/words and change the meaning. - - Do the replacement of letters/words and change the meaning. 14. Wrong pronounciatio n but still has the same meaning.

Wrong pronounciatio n but still has the same meaning.

- -

Wrong pronounciati on but still has the same meaning.

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pronounciatio n and has no meaning.

pronounciati on and has no meaning.

16. -

Pronounce the word with the help of teacher.

- -

Pronounce the word with the help of teacher.

17. - - - - Do the

repetition 18. Cannot recognize the punctuation. Cannot recognize the punctuation. - - -

19. Do their own correction.

Do their own

correction. - -

Do their own correction. 20. - Hesitate in

reading. - -

Hesitate in reading. 21. Haltingly in

reading.

Haltingly in

reading. - - -

22.

Not able to compile readings.

- -

Not able to compile readings.

23.

Not able to use a pencil correctly.

- -

Not able to use a pencil correctly. 24. Write from

left to right.

Write from left to right.

25.

Has been taught to use a pencil correctly.

Has been taught to use a pencil correctly. 26. Has been

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write in the correct line.

write in the correct line. 27. Less capable in spacing and lettering. Less capable in spacing and lettering. Less capable in spacing and lettering. Less capable in spacing and lettering. Less capable in spacing and lettering. 28. Less capable

in spelling Less capable in spelling Less capable in spelling Less capable in spelling Less capable in spelling 29. Less capable in capital letters. - Less capable in capital letters. Less capable in capital letters. Less capable in capital letters.

30. - -

Less capable in punctuation. Less capable in punctuation. Less capable in punctuation. Analysis:

As shown as in the table, there are no reading assessment found in datum III and IV. In this case, children in datum III and IV does not experiences reading difficulties. Yet, in datum I, II and V found some similar difficuties in reading and writing.

In reading, datum I, II, and V have similar difficulties on number 1, 2, 5, 9, and 14. The children in datum I and II cannot recognize some vowels and some consonants. Yet, a child in datum V cannot recognize all vowels and some consonants. Children in datum I, II and V also not able to pronounce the combined between diphthong and vowel such as “nya” and “ngu”.

As shown as in the first assessment table, they do not apply visual discrimination to differentiate between similar letters. The children mix up similar letters such as /b/ and /d/ or /p/ and /q/. They also cannot be able to remember and identify some forms of alphabets.

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In datum I and II, children cannot be able to mention combining consonants and vocal such as “ba”, and read haltingly. Besides, in datum II and V are found some similarities. Children in datum II and IV cannot mention the diphthongs such as “ny” and “ng”, cannot mention the double vowels such as “ia” and “oi”, also do disappereance letters, letters adding, and mention wrong word and meaning, different word but similar meaning, or wrong word and no meaning.

In writing assessment, datum I, II, III and IV cannot use a pencil correctly. Yet, all of the children write from left to right and all of the teachers teach them to use a pencil correctly and write down something in a right line.

Children in datum I, II, III and IV also impaired in spasial and letters. They cannot be able to make space between letters, words, or sentences. They are also have a lack on shaping letters, and most of them impaired in spelling and capital letters, in datum II also found that a child do disappereances letters, letters adding, deleting letters. In short, most of the children experience writing difficulties, especially children in datum II and V.

4.1.2Method Used to Overcome The Language Learning Difficulties

In doing the analysis, the data will be analyzed by Gillingham’s method (1997) (as cited in Abdurrahman, 2003: 218).

1. -

Teacher write the letter and mention its sound.

-

Teacher write the letter and mention its sound.

-

2. -

Children mention the sound of letters that written by its shape

through

Children mention the sound of letters that written by its shape

through

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tactile tactile 3. Teacher combining consonants and vowels then mention the sound. - - - Teacher combining consonants and vowels then mention the sound. 4. Students can distinguish the difference between vowels which lies between consonants. Students can distinguish the difference between vowels which lies between consonants. - Students can distinguish the difference between vowels which lies between consonants. - 5. Teachers teach using recording and text - - Teachers teach using recording and text - 6. Children write repeatedly with different spacing - - Children write repeatedly with different spacing Children write repeatedly with different spacing

7. - - - -

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Analysis:

As shown as on the table, only teachers in datum II and IV write the letter and mention its sound to teach the dyslexic children to practice their visual and auditory perception.This method proofs that students can distinguish the difference between vowels which lies between consonants such as “bed” and “bad”.

In datum II and III, children able to mention the sound of letters that written by its shape through tactile. Teacher combining consonants and vowels then mention the sound only in datum I and V, and only teachers in datum I and IV teach using recording and text. Yet, children in datum I, IV amd V write repeatedly with different spacing to practice their spasial relation. On the other hand, only teacher in datum V who combine several letters from small quantities up to forming a word.

In short, datum I, IV and V use three steps of Gillingham’s theory, datum II uses two steps of Gillingham’s theory, yet, datum III uses only I step of Gillingham’s theory. According to first assessment analysis, all of the teachers do a repetition until the children can uderstanding the word as applied in behaviorism theory by Skinner (1988). In short, all of the teacher use behaviorism theory by skinner and use some parts of Gillingham’s methods to teach dyslexic children.

4.2 Finding

Based on the analysis and the description above, the finding will be divided into two sections. The first is types of dyslexia suffered by children in Kidz Smile TherapyCenterfor Kids and the second is methods used to overcome the language learning difficulties.

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Generally, people know dyslexia is as reading disorder. Actually, dyslexia is a learning disability or specific learning disability in reading, poor spelling, writing, and arithmetic which is influenced by auditory and visual perception. According to Levinson (1994), dyslexia is divided into three types based on the difficulties; reading dyslexia, writing dyslexia and arithmetic dyslexia (as cited in Letchumy, 2008).In the discussion of types of difficulties section, it presents the result of the data analysis that found from the description of the data above. Besides, it is also presents the mistakes based on the types of difficulty/disorder (reading disorder and writing disorder) in order as shown as on the table:

DA TU M

Perception Assessment

Auditory Visual

T-K First Second

PA AD AM AS AB SR VD FD VC OR RD WD RD WD

I V V v v v v v

II v V v v v v v

III V v v v v

IV v v v v V v v v

[image:41.595.95.556.280.453.2]

V v v V v v v v

Table Description:

PA = Phonological Awareness SR = Spatial Relation AD =Auditory Discrimination VD = Visual Discrimination

AM = Auditory Memory FD = Figure-Ground Discrimination AS = Auditory Sequencing VC = Visual Closure

AB = Auditory Blanding OR = Object Recognition T-K = Tactile and Kinesthetic

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As shown as on the table above, datum I, II and Vexperience reading difficulty and writing difficulty. The data from the table shows that datum I only use two of five elements of auditory perception and only use one element of five elements of visual perception. Besides, datum II and IV only use one element of five elements of auditory perception and use two elements of five elements of visual perception.

On the other hand, datum III and IV do not experience reading difficulty, the children in datum III and IV experiences writing difficulty. The data from the table above shows that datum III only uses one element of five elements of auditory perception and uses two elements of five elements of visual perceptions. Besides, datum IV almost uses all the elements of auditory and visual perception. A child in datum IV uses three elements of five elements of auditory perception and visual perception.

There are also found some mistakes on the children when they are reading and writing, as shown as on the table below:

No Mistakes Datum I

Datum

II

Datum

III

Datum

IV

Datum

V 1. First Assessment

(Reading) 3 3 2 2 3

2. Second Assessment

(Reading) 11 19 - - 19

3. First Assessment

(Writing) 1 2 1 1 2

3. Second Assessment

(Writing) 7 6 7 7 8

4. Visual Perception 4 3 3 2 3

5. Auditory Perception 3 4 4 2 4

6. Tactile and

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Reading difficulty (reading dyslexia)

Reading dyslexia is a learning disability in reading in which the sufferer experiences recognize letter, wrong spelling and grasping meaning of word even sentence (Abdurrahman, 2003: 206). When they are reading, they will see the letters are spread out and its position change then do deletion, addition/insertion, inverted, substitution and mirror imaging. Those kinds of mistakes have been made by Children in Medan Therapy Kids Center, such as deletion, inverted and mirror imaging and addition.

This case is also found in the data, as the result, there are found 13 mistakes of reading in datum I, 21 mistakes of reading in datum II, 1 mistakes of reading in datum III, 2 mistakes of reading in datum IV, and 22 mistakes of reading in datum V. In short, children in datum I, II and V experiences reading difficulty.

Writing difficulty (writing dyslexia)

Writing dyslexia is a learning disability in writing in which the suffererexperiences difficulty in recognizing letter, copying print words and wrong spelling. When children learn writing, they learn reading and speaking as well (Abdurrahman, 2003:224). As the explanation before, when they write, they will see the letters are spread out and its position change then do deletion, addition/insertion, inverted, and mirror imaging.

According to Lerner (as cited in Abdurrahman, 2003: 153), children with dyslexia or learning disability including (writing dyslexia/writing disorder) have problem in their auditory and visual perception. They are not able to apply elements of auditory and visual perception. If children have auditory impairment, they are difficult to write what their teacher just said (Abdurrahman, 2003: 227).

Furthermore, if children have visual impairment, they are difficult to discriminatealphabets with similar form even different form and then they do deletion, addition/insertion, inverted, and mirror imaging.

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In the discussion of methods section to overcome the difficulties, itpresents the discussion and method to overcome the difficulties based on thedifficulty/disorder such as reading disorder and writing disorder in order. In addition, this study uses Gillingham and Stillman method toovercome the disabilities.

First, teachers letthe children to know what their mistakes are in writing on their work book. Then teacherswrite the letter to introduce alphabets (vocals), i.e. /a/ and /e/ by writing the letter and mention its sound one by one then it is followed by children, such as found in datum II and IV. After that, the teachers leadchildren to produce a word from those two vocals, such as /a/ for apple and /e/ for elephant.

Besides, the teachers practicechildren’s touched sense to recognize thecharacter of alphabets. Teachers write letters in children’s arm or back, while the children closes their eyes then guesses the letter by mention its sound, such as found in Datum II and III.

From above steps, The teacher has applied Gillingham and Stillman first method. It suggested teaching children with dyslexia by teaching phonic directlythrough introducing the alphabets and it sounds, followed by ability to producesound by combining word. Children can distinguish the difference between vowels which lies between consonant because of this step, this is found in datum I, II and III.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions

In Kidz Smile Therapy Center for Kids, there are five dyslexic children. Dyslexia is a kind of learning disorder which affects academic skills (reading and writing) then becomes learning disabilities. From the analysis and discussion,some conclusions related to research problems are drawn namely:

5.1.1 Types of Dyslexia Suffered by Children in Kidz Smile Therapy Center for

Kids

Based on the finding, it is found two types of difficulties which are appropriate with the types of dyslexia based on the problem. Those are reading and writing disorder/difficulty. Those are because the children does not use five elements of visual and auditory perception for each basically academic skill.

Child in datum I uses one elements of five elements of visual perception; those are object recognition, and two element of five elements of auditory perception such as phonological awareness and auditory memory, and use tactile and kinesthetic perception.The child also made 14 mistakes in reading and 8 mistakes in writing.

Child in datum II that uses two elements of five elements of visual perception such as visual closure and object recognition, and one element of five element of auditory perception such as auditory blanding, but did not use tactile and kinesthetic perception.The child also made 22 mistakes in reading and 8 mistakes in writing.

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Child in datum IV uses three elements of five elements in visual perception such as spasial relation, visual closure, and object recognititon, and uses three elements of five elements of auditory perception, such as auditory discrimination, auditory sequencing, and auditory blandingand use tactile and kinesthetic perception.The childalso made 2 mistakes in reading and 8 mistakes in writing.

Child in datum V uses two of five elements of visual perception such as figure-ground discrimination and visual closure, but did not use tactile and kinesthetic perception.The child also made 22 mistakes in reading and 10 mistakes in writing.

In short, based on the Lerner’s Perception Theory (1988) and Levinson’s Dyslexia Syndrome Theory (1994) there are found three children experiences reading dyslexia and writing dyslexia, they are children in Datum I, II and V. And also found two children only experiences writing dyslexia, they are children in Datum III and IV.

5.1.2 The Methods Used to Overcome The Language Learning Difficulties

Gillingham and Stillman (as cited in Letchumy, 2008)has improved a learning concept for children with dyslexia. There are three mainof learning concepts for learning disability; first, teaching phonic directly throughintroducing the alphabets and it sounds, followed by ability to produce sound bycombining words; second, use of variety of sense of body in teaching throughvisual, auditory, and kinesthetic modality; and the last, approaching of movingsteps from the easiest level to the hardest one. This three learning concepts isenough to apply for children with learning disability in order to overcome them.

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In addition, all of the elements use in any data. Besides, the teachers in Kidz Smile Therapy Center for Kids apply all three learning concepts for learning disability such as; first, teaching phonic directly through introducing the alphabets and it sounds, followed by ability to produce sound by combining words; second, use of variety of sense of body in teaching through visual, auditory, andkinesthetic modality; and the last, approaching of moving steps from the easiest level to the hardest one. In short, based on the steps, teachers in Kidz Smile Therapy Center for Kids used Gillingham and Stillman Method (1997).

5.2 Suggestions

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics basically deals with how language is learned. It is a subdivision of the fields, psychology and linguistics. Just as psychology is the study of human behavior, so psycholinguistics is the study of language behavior (Farhady, 1995). It is an interdisciplinary field of study working with cognitive science, and speech science by aiming to perceive how language is acquired, how it is produced and how it functions in the brain. (Fernandez and Cairns, 2011).

Psycholinguistic viewpoint in teaching reading puts emphasis on phonological components of language, which opposes the perception of “whole language” embraced in 1970s or general meaning of text regardless of specific understanding of phonemes or morphemes (Smith, 2004: 234). It is suggested there are two different techniques of reading, named top-down and bottom-up reading in cognitive science. The theory says that top-down readers do not focus on reading the words individually, but guess the meaning of the next word while their eyes pass over the text. On the flip side, bottom up readers start reading from letters to words, then sentence and the meaning. However, it is argued that contrary to what is believed, a competent reader does not always pass over the word by guessing the meaning but reads the word with a single phoneme; like reading “midnight” but only recognizing the “d.” In addition to this “the reader may be able to see enough to identify the next word as ‘please’, but will most likely not be able to identify the next word as ‘remember’.” Therefore, it is asserted that in any cases readers need to use bottom-up method. (Brown n.d: 6).

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knowledge of the text, the reader will try to decode the text. So the bottom-up reading process is used both in L1 and L2 acquisition (Brown n.d). This indicates the need of recognizing the every component of language that is phoneme, morpheme, syntax and semantics for all readers, which is the primary concern for dyslexic children as well.

2.2 Learning Disorder

Learning disorder or learning disability is a classification that includes several areas of functioning in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner,usually caused by an unknown factor or factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "Learning Difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a lack of ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. (wikipedia.org)

Learning disorders are diagnosed when the individual’s achievement on individuality administered, standarized test in reading, mathematics, or written expression is substantially below that expected for age, schooling, and level of intelegence. The learning problems significantly interfere with academic achievement or activities of daily living that require reading, mathematical, or writing skills. (American Psychiatric Association, 2000: 49)

Lying upon both definitions above, learning disorder can affect a person's ability to speak in language. Inability of a person in understanding the language of the learning process can be called language disorder.

In the other hand, there are some comprehension of learning disorder. Learning disorder is a disability that can not be seen physically. An inability to learn can not be recognized in a physical form that is different from any other normal person. (Wood, 2005: 20)

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adults with learning disabilities see, hear, and understand things differently. This can lead to trouble with learning new information and skills, and putting them to use. The most common types of learning disabilities involve problems with reading, writing, math, reasoning, listening, and speaking. (as cited in helpguide.org)

Kids Helath (2013) states that for someone diagnosed with a learning disability, it can seem scary at first. But a learning disability doesn't have anything to do with a person's intelligence — after all, successful people such as Walt Disney, Alexander Graham Bell, and Winston Churchill all had learning disabilities. Learning disabilities are problems that affect the brain's ability to receive, process, analyze, or store information. These problems can make it difficult for a student to learn as quickly as someone who isn't affected by learning disabilities.There are many kinds of learning disabilities. Most students affected by them have more than one kind. Certain kinds of learning disabilities can interfere with a person's ability to concentrate or focus and can cause someone's mind to wander too much. Other learning disabilities can make it difficult for a student to read, write, spell, or solve math problems.The way our brains process information is extremely complex — it's no wonder things can get messed up sometimes. Take the simple act of looking at a picture, for example: Our brains not only have to form the lines into an image, they also have to recognize what the image stands for, relate that image to other facts stored in our memories, and then store this new information.It's the same thing with speech — we have to recognize the words, interpret their meaning, and figure out the significance of the statement to us. Many of these activities take place in separate parts of the brain, and it's up to our minds to link them all together.

According to Lyness (2013) Just because you have trouble studying for a test doesn't mean you have a learning disability. There are as many learning styles as there are individuals. For example, some people learn by doing and practicing, while others learn by listening (such as in class) or prefer to read material. Some people are just naturally slower readers or learners than others, but they still perform well for their age and abilities. Sometimes, what seems to be a learning disability is simply a delay in development; the person will eventually catch up with — and perhaps even surpass — his or her peers.

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most people in their teen years, the first telltale sign of most learning disabilities occurs when they notice that there's a disconnect between how much they studied for a test and how well they performed. Or it may just be the feeling a person has that something isn't right. (as cited in kidshealth.org)

2.3 Language Disorder

There is a case in which a child experiences difficulty in communicationwith his fellow or his teacher for instance poor vocabulary or incorrectgrammatical. It is known as language disorder. Better Health Cannel (2009) statesthat language disorder may include difficulty in speaking, listening, and learningwhether reading or writing; or a combination of all these areas. It shows thatlanguage disorder does not only affect speaking and listening but also learning. Inaddition, based on Haring (1974) “learning disability is a behavioral deficit almostalways associated with academic performance and that can be remediated” (ascited in Somantri, 2007: 195).

According to Indah & Abdurrahman (2008: 129) linguistically language disorder is “inability of acquiring and processing linguistic information”. They point to two failures both acquiring and processing the information which can affect his basic language skills while communicating with others. In addition, based on Allen (2010) language disorders involve the area of the brain that controls the processing of language and communication. It means that language disorder is not affected by physical handicapped. Language disorder affects learning disability. Because of that language disorder is divided into two based on learning disability such as expressive language disorder and receptive language disorder.

2.3.1 Receptive Language Disorder

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2.3.2 Expressive Language Disorder

According to Allen (2010), “expressive language is the ability to express your ideas and thoughts to others. Meanwhile, expressive language disorder is a condition in which a person has difficulty expressing themselves with language, both in speech and writing.” Based on Logsdon (2010), children with expressive language disorder have difficulty with language processing and the connection between words and ideas they represent. Some people may also have problems with pronunciation of words. Thus, expressive language disorder is an inability to express ideas and thoughts through language whether oral and written.

Children who suffer language disorder have difficulties in understanding language, knowing what certain language concept means, following direction and remembering information presented orally. They need a little help from others to make everything clearer. Actually, they are bright and smart but they are different. The difference makes them extraordinary than others, have special skills, for instance drawing.

2.4 Dyslexia

Dyslexia is originally from Greek; “dys” means lack of or difficult and “lexia or lexicon” means pertaining the words (Mississippi Department of Education, 2002:1). According to Mississippi Law (in Mississippi Department of Education, 2002: 2) “dyslexia means a language processing disorder that may be manifested by difficulty in processing expressive or receptive, oral or written language despite adequate intelligence, educational exposure, and cultural opportunity”. Thus, it argues that dyslexia is not only about language disorder but also learning disability.

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think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematic calculations” (as cited in Wilmshurst, 2005: 211).

On the other hand, Neurologist and medical experts (Mississippi Department of Education, 2002: 3) often define dyslexia as a disability resulting from brain dysfunction which can be affecting learning academic skills such as reading, writing, spelling and math calculations. Children with dyslexia use their right brain more than left brain to process language information because of weakening function of corpus callosum (Letchumy, 2008: 117 and Ward, 2005: 4). In addition, many researchers have proved that dyslexia is suffered by more boys than girls. Stein (2009) reveals in his presentation that one in three of US and UK eleven year olds leave primary school unable to read.

In short, dyslexia is a kind of learning disability or specific learning disability. It is caused by the corpus callosum which does not work well and then the brain forces right brain to be used more than left brain to recognize and process letters, images, symbols, and concepts. In addition, dyslexia is not only about reading disorder but also writing disorder and arithmetic disability.

2.4.1 Dyslexia Based on Function Impairment

Based on function impairment, dyslexia is divided into three types such as visual dyslexia, auditory dyslexia and visual-auditory dyslexia (Letchumy, 2008). Visual Dyslexia

According to Letchumy (2008: 119) “visual dyslexia is a disorder that can see a word which consists of some letters as well but cannot differentiate and make interpretation what he has seen”. Then Stein (2009) argues that it is caused by visual magnocellular weakness. In short, visual dyslexia is a visual disorder which affects learning process of a dyslexic in grasping the meanings of printed materials that have to be seen.

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position, head moving excessively while reading, eyes rubbed frequently, tendency to avoid close visual work and tendency to lose place in reading. (as cited inBond, 1984: 54)

Auditory Dyslexia

According to Letchumy (2008: 119) “auditory dyslexia is a disorder that cannot differentiate the similarity and difference between sounds they heard, be familiar with sounds of every word, and combine words in a sentence. Dyslexics cannot hear similar sounds in the beginning and ending such as boy and big, cat and math, and differentiate some words with the same vocal such as pin, pan, and pen”. Then Stein (2009) argues it is caused