POST-COLONIAL ANALYSIS IN
ANGELA’S ASHES
NOVEL
BY FRANK MCCOURT
A THESIS
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Strata One Degree (S1)
FATMAHWATI RANAJAYA
109026000151
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF ADAB AND HUMANITIES
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
i
Faculty. State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2015.
The study of this research focuses on the perceptions, actions and phenomena of the main character in Angela’s Ashes novel by Frank McCourt which defines the position of Ireland as the Orient toward England and America as the Occident. The main character namely Frank McCourt who dreams to leave Ireland to get a better and successful life. This research analyzes the main
character’s perceptions, action and phenomena that occur to him that arise the differences between the orient, Ireland, and the occident, England and America.
The data are collected from some books and they are analyzed by reading, understanding, classifying, and identifying. The method of this research is qualitatif descriptive because this analysis also explains certain events which relates to other events. This research uses the theory of Orientalism from Edward W. Said that explains the relation between East or Orient and West or Occident. The Orient in the novel Angela’s Ashes is occupied by Ireland and the Occident is by England and America
The study analyzes some characteristics of the main character, Frank McCourt and the relation of Ireland, England and America through his point of view, action, and phenomena that occur to him. The result of this study reveals that Ireland in the novel depicts the East’s characterization that is always negative and inferior, while England and America depicts the West’s characterization
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful
The writer would like to thank to Allah SWT, the Most Gracious and Most
Merciful for all the favor to complete this thesis. Many salutation and benediction
to the Greatest Prophet Muhammad SAW for his covenying the words of God, the
light of humanism and peace.
The writer would like to deliver her deepest thankful to her beloved
parents, (Alm) H. Ahmad Ranajaya and Hj. Rusmiyati for the support, prayer,
motivation and strength they have been giving to the writer. The writer also would
like to thank to her beloved husband Puji Agus Riyanto who always give the
writer the privilege of pursuing the interest in University and financially
supporting the writer to complete her bachelor degree.
Many words of thanks are also addressed to her advisor Ahmad Zakky,
M.Hum, for his time, guidance, kindness, and motivation to finish this paper. The
special thanks is also dedicated to :
1. Prof. Dr. Sukron Kamil, M. Ag., the Dean of Faculty of Adab and Humanities,
State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
2. Drs. Saefudin, M.Pd., the Head of English Department.
3. Elve Oktafiyani, M.Hum., the Secretary of English Letters Department.
4. The Lectures and the Staffs of Faculty of Adab and Humanities.
6. The writer’s big family : Ratimah, Mulyono, Mulyadi, Sugiarti, Anto, thanks
for your support and generiousity.
7. The writer’s best friends : Molalita, Halimatus Sadiyah, Virgy, Nurul. Thank
you so much for the time that have been spent together and for filling my day
with your cheerfullness.
8. The big Family of Literature Class 2009, the writer will always miss them.
9. For those the writer cannot mention the name either directly and indurectly
helping the writer in finishing the thesis. Hopefully, this writer’s work will be
useful for those who are interested in it. May Allah blesses us. Amen.
Jakarta, June 2015
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ... i
APPROVEMENT ... ii
LEGALIZATION ... iii
DECLARATION ... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... v
TABLE OF CONTENT ... vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of Study ... 1
B. Focus of The Study ... 8
C. Research Question ... 8
D. Significance of The Study ... 8
E. Research Methodology 1. The Method of Research ... 9
2. The Objective of Research ... 9
3. The Techniques of Data Analysis ... 9
4. The Instrument of Research ... 10
5. Unit of Analysis ... 10
6. Place and Time of Research ... 10
CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK A. Previous Research ... 11
B. Character and Characterization ... 14
C. Theory of Orientalism by Edward W. Said ... 17
viii
2. England as The Occident ... 44
3. America as The Occident ... 47
CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion ... 58
B. Suggestion ... 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 61
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of The Study
Etymologically, the post colonial derived from the word 'post' and
„colonial’, while the word colonial itself is derived from the root word
colonia, Roman language, which means farm or settlement.1 Therefore,
etymologically, colonial does not mean occupation, possession, colonization,
and other exploitation connotation. Colonial negative connotations was
arising after the inbalanced interaction between the natives and the settlers.
Postcolonial theory is a theory that is used to analyze various cultural
phenomenon, such as: history, politics, economics, literature, and so on,
which occurred in the countries of the former colonies of modern Europe. The
post colonialism, as a term, is still problematic. As a marker, it marked a few
things including: the era of post-colonialism, critical attitude towards
Colonialism, region once or still occupied by Colonialism and how the
expression of the colonizing and colonized.2 In its most basic forms it has
tended to focus on what one group of writers call 'the imperial process from
the moment of colonization to the present day. It has emphasized the loss of
identity, language, culture, sense of place and integrity which post-colonial
1 Prof. Dr. Nyoman Kutha Ratna,
Teori, Metode, dan Teknik Penelitian Sastra (Yogyakarta:
Pustaka Pelajar, 2007), p. 205
2 Zainul Maarif, Pos-Oksidentalisme Identitas dan Alteritas Pos-Kolonial (Jakarta Timur: Dapur
peoples have suffered. Maarif also added that at least five typical postcolonial
issues, namely Colonialism and Imperialism, the discourse of the colony, the
binary opposition, feminism and gender, and ideology and identity.3 These
losses it sees as continually and persistently registered in the post-colonial
societies and cultures which arose out of the dissolution of the European
Empires in the first half of the twentieth century.4
According to Shelley Walia, post-colonial project was first proposed
by Frantz Fanon in his book Black Skin, White Masks and the Wretched of the
Earth (1967). Fanon was a psychiatrist who developed a very careful analysis
of the psychological and sociological effects caused by colonization. Fanon
concluded that through colonial dichotomy, colonizer-colonized, oriental
discourse has spawned psychological alienation and marginalization very
powerful.5 In the Anglo-American world was pioneered by Edward W. Said
with his book Orientalism (1978) analyzes the imbalance relationship
between East and West. Other figures are Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Homi
K. Bhabha, and Sara Suleri.6
The elements of post colonialism can be found in a variety of literary
works such as short stories, poetry, novels and plays. The hallmark of
postcolonialism is the fact that the object is the texts relating to the territory
of the former European colonies in general, the symptoms of post-colonial
3 Ibid., p. 3
4 Colin Graham,
Post-Colonial Theories and Irish Culture, Cork University Press, Accessed on
03.29 pm March 23th 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29735754, p. 29-30
5 Ratna,
Op. Cit., p. 206
6 Nyoman Kutha Ratna, Sastra dan Cultural Studies Representasi Fiksi dan Fakta. (Yogyakarta:
3
cultural arise, contained in a variety of text study of the East, which was
written by the orientalists, which are called the oriental texts (from the word
orien that means East). Nonetheless, as a result of the dominance of the
Western intellect, many works that describe the imbalance relationship
between the West imbalance with Eastern societies written by intellectual
who has been constructed by the natives of Western thought.7 Postcolonial
vision trace the patterns of thought of orientalis group in order to establish the
superiority of the West, with the logical consequence that East inferiority may
occurs. Therefore, the target is the subject of a collective vision of the
intellectual West that view the oriental groups based on Edward Said's
understanding.
One of the territory of the former European colonies is Ireland. Ireland
is an island situated in the Atlantic Ocean and separated from Great Britain by
the Irish Sea. Ireland, Irish Éire, country of western Europe occupying
five-sixths of the westernmost island of the British Isles.8 In this context, Britain
as the part of European had colonized Ireland for more than 800 years.
Therefore, it has long been called an internal colony of Britain for Ireland.
The English made a concentrated effort to colonize Ireland in the 17th
century. Settlers were planted and Irish society was split between an
English-speaking landed gentry and the local Irish-English-speaking, landless or nearly
7 Ratna, Op. Cit., p. 206-207
8 Sean Key, Ireland, Accessed on 03.13 pm March 22th 2015,
landless peasantry.9 Thus, Ireland can be identified as a colonized territory,
and the Republic of Ireland is often considered as a postcolonial state.
The English controled the life of politic in Ireland. The English
landlord did not only take the advantage economically, but also take the
authority in social and politic in Ireland. Thus, it caused the poverty in Ireland
increased year by year.10 Especially at the time Ireland faced Great Famine
that addressed Irish to the huge imigration because of starving. The famine
was a turning point in Irish history because of a fungus disease which made
the potato plants to rot in the ground, giving off an appalling stench and crop
failure affected the whole island Before the famine, land was subdivided; all
the boys got a piece of the family estate (which grew smaller and smaller with
each generation). After the famine, the oldest son got the estate and the
younger siblings, with no way to stay in Ireland, emigrated to the US,
Canada, Australia and Britain. Today, there are 40 million Irish-Americans.11
Because of the huge emigration to the US, Ireland faced West and the
influences of West, especially America has increased in Ireland.
One of literary works which contain elements of the postcolonial in
Ireland is a novel titled Angela's Ashes by Frank McCourt 1996. Frank
McCourt's himself acclaimed book Angela's Ashes is subtitled "A Memoir of
A Childhood.
9Rick Steves and Pat O’Connor, Ireland’s History in a Nutshell, Accessed on 03.46 pm March
22th 2015, https://www.ricksteves.com/watch-read-listen/read/articles/irelands-history-in-a-nutshell.
10 Eriz Miernawati,
Sharing: Amerika History, Accessed on 05.15 pm July 31st 2015,
http://elizmiernawat.blogspot.com/2014/10/amerika-history.html.
11 Anonymous, The Great Famine, Accessed on 02.17 pm March 21st 2015.
5
A memoir is defined as an "account of the personal experiences of an author" and so should offer its author the opportunity to assume representational control of his or her own memories. Definitions indicate that memoir is less objective than an autobiography as the latter is an "account of a person's life written by that person". The difference between an autobiography and a memoir is that an autobiography claims to give an authoritative and comprehensive account of the story of the author's life; while a memoir reminisces about specific instances in the author's life, with the implication that the events are recounted as memories which emphasize personal experiences and are thus open to interpretation. In this context, a memoir allows its author the space to create and explore his or her own interpretation of the past. 12
The above explanation shows that the difference between
autobiography and autobiographical memoir is presenting a text that provides
an understanding and authority of a writer's life story, while memoir presents
a text to commemorate any specific things of life of the author, with the
intention that the events which happens to be retold as a memorial to
emphasize a personal experience, and therefore, there will be interpretations
of the author to the personal experience. In this context, memoir lets writers
the opportunity to create and develop their own interpretation of his past life.
Angela’s Ashes is a successful novel, becoming one of the most highly
acclaimed nonfiction works of the decade. The book won numerous awards,
including the National Book Critics Circle Award, Royal Society of
Literature Award and the Pulitzer Bestseller list for over two years. Angela’s
Ashes novel is an emotional and wonderful autobiography that captures Frank
McCourt’s personal history with great depth and appeal. It allows its audience
to gain much insight into his life, through his clever choice of events and
12 Aoileann Ni Eigeartaigh, Angela’s Ashes: An Memoir of An Irish Childhood. Accessed on 03.56
themes, pure honesty, use of techniques such as characterization, humors and
emotional and dramatic language.
This novel tells the story of an Irish-American’s childhood namely
Frank McCourt. Frank and his family had just moved from New York back to
his parents' homeland, Ireland. Frank was born in America in Depression Era
and is the eldest son of the couple Malachy McCourt and Angela Sheehan.
Frank possess many brothers, they are Malachy who is one year younger than
Frank, Oliver and Eugene, twin brother of less than one year, and Margaret,
the sister who had died. Margaret's death which is the main factor of McCourt
family returned to Ireland. More troubles plague the McCourts in Ireland:
Angela has a miscarriage, Frank’s two younger twin-brothers die, and
Malachy continues to drink away the family’s money.
Frank’s childhood is described as a time of great deprivation, but of
good humor and adventure as well.13 How they survive only from allowances
of St. Vincent de Paul, the father who is hard to get a job as a northern Irish
accent and bad properties. And the habit of drunkenness father which is
uncontrolled until forced her mother to beg for the sake of her children cope
with hunger. In the end, they all always hungry and shortcomings.
Frank experienced poverty as a child can not be separated from social
influence in Ireland. In addition to telling about the condition of his life and
his family, Frank also tells how the lives of others around him, such as
13 Anonymous, Angela’s AshesFrank McCourt : Plot Overview. Accessed on 15.38 pm March
7
neighborhoods, schools, and workplaces in Ireland. Many of them has the
same dream like Frank to go to another country, like England and America to
get a better life. They, including Frank, admire how well the system of life in
other countries and argue that only by leaving Ireland, they can get the proper
and succesful life. Frank himself has a big dream to return to his homeland,
America, one day, and hoping to achieve a better life in the country that holds
„the land of freedom’. After quitting school, in addition to feed him and his
family, he worked to collect money to be able to go to America, from being a
writer of the threathening letters for customer, a telegram boy, a messenger
boy and many other jobs.
The story in the novel are using the first person point of view that is
Frank McCourt’s point of view. Through his view, it is very interesting to see
how he, as the main character show the depiction of the ex-colonized or the
Orient that is occupied by Ireland and the ex-colonizer or the Occident that is
occupied by England and America.
To learn how colonization progress influenced countries both the
colonized and colonizer, it will be easily studied by a theory used in literary
works, namely orientalism. Orientalism is a theory was created by Edward
Said. It is a theory that shows the position of Orient and Occident.
Because the novel of Angela’s Ashes by Frank McCourt is one
example of orientalism practice which the author can define the position of
the orient and occident through the main character, the writer chooses the
B. Focus of The Study
This study will focus on Frank McCourt as the main character shows the
point of views, action, and phenomenon within the text that describe the
position of Ireland as Orient and England and America as Occident by using
Orientalism theory of Edward Said.
C. Research Question
To facilitate researcher in analyzing this novel, researcher developed two
formulas related issues with the focus on:
1. How is Frank McCourt as the main character described in Angela’s Ashes
novel by Frank McCourt 1996?
2. How is the relationship of Ireland as the Orient toward England and
America as the Occident described in Angela's Ashes novel by Frank
McCourt’s view as the main character?
D. Significance of The Study
The benefits of this research is to enrich our knowledge about condition
of Ireland after colonization, especially in the time of Depression Era as the
setting of this novel. Furthermore, the writer is to reveal domination of
England and America towards Ireland by using orientalism theory of Edward
9
E. Research Methodology
1. The Method of Research
Research methods that will be used by researcher is a qualitative
research method. Qualitative research methods is the analysis done by
linking social facts with the text of literary works by involving authors,
author social environment, and others. Another sort of research which the
writer will take is descriptive research which explains about one
phenomenon which has a correlation with the recent accident.14
2. The Objective of the Research
The objective of this study is to answer the issues related to the
research question which was developed by researcher. This study intends
to demonstrate the process of research in explaining the Orient and
Occident through Frank McCourt as the main character through the point
of views, actions and phenomena that occurs within the text
3. The Technique of Data Analysis
This researcher will start this study by reading the novel Angela's
Ashes by Frank McCourt repeatly and more thoroughly, then identify and
analyze the words of Frank McCourt that show his point of views,
actions and phenomena within the text that contain the position of Ireland
as the orient toward England and America as the occident.
4. The Instrument of Research
The researcher will involve herself as a major instrument in this
study. The writer will firstly analyze the characterization of the main
character, Frank McCourt. Later on, the writer will consider the words or
point of view of Frank McCourt by marking the sentences that show the
view and correlation of the Orient and Occident, then interpret and
analyze those sentences by using Orientalism theory by Edward Said.
5. Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis of this study is novel Angela's Ashes by Frank
McCourt, published by Scribner in 1996.
6. Place and Time of Research
This study will be conducted in 2015 and is placed on the campus of
11
CHAPTER II
THE THEORITICAL DESCRIPTION
A. Previous Research
There are some researches related to Angela’s Ashes 1996 by Frank
McCourt, they are a thesis titled An Analysis of Moral Development In
Angela’s Ashes by MJ Tarigan from University of North Sumatra14, a journal
titled Angela’s Ashes : Class Struggle and the Dream of Betterment by Hamid
Farahmandian from University Putra Malaysia15 and an essay titled
Frank
McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes: A Picture of an Irish Childhood by Emilia Stopar
from Lund University, Sweden. 16
MJ Tarigan in her thesis titled An Analysis of Moral Development In
Angela’s Ashes explains about how the main character Frank experience his
moral development. Based on the definition of moral development which is
the process through which children develop proper attitudes and behaviors
toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and
laws, Tarigan is interested to analyze moral development in this novel
14
MJ. Tarigan, An Analysis of Moral Development In Angela’s Ashes, Accessed on 11.00 pm May
22th, 2015. http://repository.usu.ac.id/handle/123456789/25546.
15 Hamid Farahmandian, Angela’s Ashes : Class Struggle and the Dream of Betterment, Accessed
on 11.16 pm May 22th, 2015.
http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/RHSS/article/view/8359/8556.
16 Emilia Stopar, Frank McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes: A Picture of an Irish Childhood, Accessed on
because he found that the main character in this novel, Frank, undergoes
moral development through conflicts and incidents he experiences in his life.
Tarigan uses extrinsic approach which is a kind of approach which
analyzes the literary work and its connection with other knowledge and
external factors such as biography, history, society, religion, psychology and
so on. Tarigan uses extrinsic approach by connecting the story with other
knowledge and relate it with psychology in order to get deeper understanding
about moral development that usually experienced by children
Meanwhile, Hamid Farahmandian in his journal analysis titled
Angela’s Ashes : Class Struggle and the Dream of Betterment explains how
the class struggle and its effects on the society and characters in novel
Angela’s Ashes. The choosing of his analysis’s aim is viewed from the story
of Frank McCourt as the author of the novel who experiences th financial and
social troubles in both the United States and his homeland, Ireland. To
accomplish his goal, he uses the theory of Marxism.
He focuses on economic issues and class issue which is examined to
three issues, they are „Alienation’, „Religion’, and „Revolution’. Dividing the
issues into three issues is caused of the effect of social troubles to the
character, Frank McCourt, who has the class struggle and the dream going to
United States. Hamid aims to see which one the primary cause of Frank’s
leave to United States is. And finally, in the end of his analysis, he concludes
13
feels in Ireland due tothe oppression and religion on its head which leads to
an revolution in his inside regarding his future life based on the experience
from hispast and family troubles suffered during the first nineteen years.
Later, Emilia Stopar in her essay titled Frank McCourt’s Angela’s
Ashes: A Picture of an Irish Childhood aims to investigate how Frank
McCourt pictures Irish childhood in Angela’s Ashes and then decide whether
this is a realistic and true picture, or whether McCourt exaggerates in his
descriptions. Stopar focuses on aspects of childhood that McCourt brings up,
relates and critizes those aspects. In the investigation, Stopar also really
concerns to the role of Catholicism in Irish and what life was like in Ireland
during the period.
Stopar divides her focus into four stages. Firstly, the focus on Ireland
and Irish childhood in a historical and cultural context, where historical facts
will be compared with how Ireland is described in the novel. Secondly,
attention paid to Catholicism’s influence on various institutions and on
people. Thirdly, the positive aspects of Irish childhood brought up. Lastly, the
negative aspects of such a childhood as well as McCourt’s criticism of these
aspects dealt with.
In this research, the writer purposes to examine the novel Angela’s
Ashes by using Orientalism of Edward W. Said to understand, analyze and
explain how Novel Angela’s Ashes 1996 by Frank McCourt depicts the
conversation, actions, perceptions of the main character, Frank McCourt and
phenomenon that occurs to him within the text.
B. Character and Characterization
By definition, character means roles. Characters can be a person,
community, race, mental and moral attitude, the quality of reason, famous
people, figures in literature, reputation, signs or letters. 17
As a literary term, a character is a person created for a work of
fiction.18 As Kennedy said that a character is a person. Though several of
literary works are using animal or plant as a character, the character still
describes human personalities.19 Meanwhile, Robert Diyanni states on his
book that characters posses the kind of reality that dreams have a reality no
less intense for being imagined.20Abrams also defined that character is the
person presented in a dramatic or narrative work who are interpret by the
reader being endowed with moral, dispositional and emotional qualities are
expressed in what they say.21
Robert Diyanni has classified the character into two classification.
They are major and minor character. 22The major character is an important
figure at the center of the story’s action or theme. Major character is
17 Albertine Minderop, Metode Karakterisasi Telaah Fiksi. (Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia,
2005) p. 2
18 Jane Barchman Gordon & Karen Kuehner, Fiction The Elements of the Short Story (New York:
McGraw Hill Glencoe, 1999), p. 95
19X. J. Kennedy,
An Introduction to Fiction: Third Edition (United States of America: Little,
Brown and Company, 1983), p. 45.
20 Robert Diyanni,
Literature Approach to Fiction, Poetry and Drama (New York: McGraw Hills,
2004), p. 54
15
sometimes called a protagonist. The term protagonist refers to the main or
central character in fiction.23 The protagonist may also be the most
sympathetic character. It means that the protagonist can arouse your concern
and sympathy. Rather, a more neutral and accurate word to describe the
opponent of protagonist is antagonist. An antagonist is a character whose
conflict with a protagonist may spark the story’s conflict. The antagonist may
also represent a major threat or obstacle to the main character by their very
existence without necessarily actively targeting him or her. Together, the
protagonist and antagonist comprise the major characters or forces in fiction.
Meanwhile, minor character is a character whose function is partly to
illuminate the major character. 24 Their degree of importance depends on their
function. Minor characters primarily function as foils, stereotypes, or pieces
of furniture. The role of minor character enable us to discover what the major
character thinking or planning. Some of minor characters are typically
contrast physically and/ or in personality with the main character. The
contrast can emphasize the characteristics of the main characters.
Furthermore, minor characters are often static or unchanging, they remain the
same from the beginning of a work to the end.
There are other classification of characters. They are round and flat
character. Round character is a three-dimensional character complex enough
to be able to surprise the reader without losing credibility.25 Because the
round characters exhibit many characteristics, some of which may be
23 Gordon & Kuehner, Op. Cit., p. 96 24 Diyanni, Op. Cit., p. 54
contradictory and being called “incalculability of life”. Such characters are
said to be fully and well developed. In contrast, flat character is deemed
incapable of surprising the reader because flat character only has some simple
characteristics.
Approaching a character is similar as how we approach a human. We
need to observe their actions, to listen to what they say and how they say it, to
notice how they relate to other characters and how other characters respond to
them, especially to what they say about each other. Furthermore, to analyze a
character, we can concern on the action, the speech or the physical detail of
the character. To recognize characters in a fiction an author does many efforts
to bring readers into the story and it will ease readers, later, to catch
personalities of characters. This effort of author called characterization.
Characterization is the means by which writers present and reveal
character.26Characterization is the art and technique of representing fictional
personages, depends upon action or plot as well as narration and point of
view. 27Characterization is also called as the character creation that is what
the author does to bring a character to life, to provide the reader with a sense
of that character’s personality. Authors can characterize or develop a
character directly or indirectly.
Characterization methods in the study of literature is described the
method of disposition of the figures contained in a literary work. How to
determine, in this case, the imajinatif- figures, and determine the nature or
26 Diyanni, Op.Cit., p. 55
27 Alison Booth, J. Paul Hunter, and Kelly J. Mays, The Norton Introduction to Literature (New
17
character figures is very different.28 Minderop states that in presenting and
determining the characteristics of the character, in general, the author uses
two ways or methods in his works, namely the direct method (telling) and
indirect methods (showing).29 Telling methods rely on the exposure of
characteristic on exposition and commentary directly from the author. This
direct method includes characterization through the use of names,
characterization through appearance, and characterization by the author.
Meanwhile the showing method shows the author puts himself outside the
narration to provide an opportunity for characters to show their
characterization through dialogue and action.
C. Theory of Orientalism by Edward W Said.
Orientalism is a theory relates to relationship between West and East.
It started during latter part of eighteenth century and early years of the
nineteenth when colonialization term was finally changed to be more vague
and acceptable. This theory was invented by Edward W. Said.30 In his book
entitled Orientalism (1978). Said examines the vast tradition of Western
„corporate institution’ for coming to terms with the Orient, for authorizing
views about it and ruling over it.31
Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orient –dealing with it by making statement about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient.32
The success of modern Europe in the control of its colonies are not
solely caused by physical force. In this connection, there are other forces
which in some ways even more role, namely discourse. Orient which is the
central of Said’s analysis is actually a production of Western discourse, a
means of self-definition of Western culture as well as of justifying imperial
domination of Oriental people. Thus, the group of Western intellectual
develop science projects on the East nation called Orientalism.33 With
generates various aspects of the study of Eastern nation, then it can be known
strength and weakness of the East, so that it can be easier to be mastered.
The Orient geographically exists separately from the Western World,
but the “Orient” does not merely refer to a geographical location. It also very
profound political and cultural conotation.34 This “Orient” has become the
“other” or the “third world” or “the colonized” of the West.
According to Schwab’s notion, “Oriental” identifies an amateur or
professional enthusiam for everything Asiatic, which was wonderfully
31 M.A.R. Habib, A History of Literary Criticism (London: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), p. 744 32 Edward W Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin Books, 1991), p. 3
33 Nyoman Kutha Ratna,
Teori, Metode, dan Teknik Penelitian Sastra. (Yogyakarta: Pustaka
Pelajar, 2007), p. 209
34 Wang Ning, Orientalism versus Occidentalism?, New Literary History. Accessed on 01.11 pm
19
synonymous with the exotic, the mysterious, the profound, the seminal.35 East
is also likely to be seen as homogeni where the people are anonymous mass
rather than an individual, their actions are determined by instinctive emotions
(lust, terror, amok, etc.) rather than by conscious choice or decision.36
Emotions and the reaction is always determined by racist considerations (for
example they are like this or that because they are Asian or black, or oriental)
rather than by aspects of the status or condition of the individual (for example
because maybe they are coincidentally a big brother, or uncle, or a collector
of antique ceramics)
As the invaders, which itself had been preparing for specific purposes,
then science, translations, and other studies it produces, including literature,
not as a whole to contain the true objectivity, but rather occurs cultural biases.
Description and analysis of the texts of oriental biased so that the West
remains the West and the East will be further east. Knowledge of the East
never be a genuine reason in due to the people who tell it are closely related
and have a particular interest in colonialism. Therefore, their objectivity is
objectivity according to their own ideas, which is thought of Western society.
Said menyebutkan karya-karya kelompok orientalis sebagai teks-teks predatoris, yang secara perlahan-lahan akan mengisap kekuatan bangsa Timur. Orientalisme dengan demikian tidak terbatas sebagai pengetahuan, melainkan sebagai kekuasaan. Oleh karena itulah, disebutkan bahwa orientalisme bukan mitos melainkan mesin, dalam bentuk imperialism antropologis, yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan pernyataan-pernyataan yang berbeda mengenai dunia Timur. 37
35 Said,
Op. Cit., p. 51
36 Peter Barry, Begining Theory: Pengantar Komprehensif Teori Sastra dan Budaya (Yogyakarta:
Jalasutra, 2010) p. 225
The term of orientalism, in Said’s opinion, can be defined by three
ways. First is by viewing orientalism as a mode or paradigm to differ West
and East by a certain epistemology and ontology. Next, orientalism can be
also understood such a kind of West institution which focuses on East people
and tradition as its topic. The last, orientalism essentially is the official
institution of Western that takes its care into East. In other words, orientalism
is likely the institution created by West to spread an understanding of East
which its truth was blown away or sometimes group of lies and myths38.
The opposite side of the Orient is the Occident. Occident is position
for Europe or West and orient is a term for East or usually Asia. Recently, the
area range of occident is identified as Europe and United States. However,
Japan, until recently an emblem of the East, has increasingly been accepted as
a member of the West in international organizations as well as in popular
culture.39 Orient, is covering Asia, Africa and Latin America. Besides,
occident call themselves as “West”, “The First world”, “Self”, and “The
Center” while orient call themselves as “East”, “The Third World”, “The
Other” and “Periphery”40
Occident is reflected as a colonizer and orient is as a colonized.
Because the relationship between occident and orient is as colonizer and
colonized, it is impossible to discuss one side only. The relationship between
38 Akhyar Yusuf Lubis, Dekonstruksi Epistemologi Modern: Dari Postmodernisme, Teori Kritis,
Poskolonialisme Hingga Cultural Studies (Jakarta: Pustaka Indonesia Satu, 2006), p 216
39 Fernando Coronil,
Beyond Occidentalism: Toward Nonimperial Geohistorical Categories.
Cultural Anthropology. Accessed on 01.11 pm April 14th, 2015. http://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html, p. 53
21
Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying
degrees of a complex hegemony.41 These two sides have distinctive power
and characterizations and both are in contradiction. Eventhough they are
contrastive, they have same function which is to define the power of each
other.
Furthermore, occident and orient are two groups in forming the
orientalism theory. The occident is a group with high superiority and great in
any aspects. As opposite side, the orient is an oppressive group and inferior.
Characters of the occident are always positive that it is masculine,
independent, civilized, rational familiar, strong, educated and modern. On the
contrary, the orient is in negative side that it is feminine, wild, weak,
irrational, uneducated, and primitive.42 No matter how characterizations of
both the occident and orient are, they are a result of human’s creation. Their
presence helps each other to define their position.
As a colonizer, occident always practiced many methods in
dominating its colonized country. In colonialization era, the occident bluntly
imperialized to extend its domination area. However, though colonialism
have ended, postcolonial regions are not necessarily free from colonialism.
Although it has been bustled by struggle for independence throughout
colonial countries, colonialism still re-sticking with a new model called
noecolonialism.43
41 Bill Ashcroft, et.al.
The Post-Colonial Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 89
42 Lutfi Hamadi, Edward Said: The Postcolonial Theory and The Literature of Decolonization
(European Scientific Journal June 2014 /SPECIAL/ edition vol.2), p. 39
Neocolonialism denotated the continuing of economic hegemony of
invaders, in which post-colonial state still relies on his old master.44 Countries
of the former colonies tend to depend on the West that is the invaders of their
own, especially in the economic and political sectors is still not stable. The
values that are universal; discipline, respect for the achievements, and the
fulfillment of basic human needs as a reason why theystill depend on the
West. Furthermore, Maarif points out that West is very close to people's
awareness of developing countries. Clothing, art, science, technology,
architecture, language, lifestyle and mind, to just mention a few examples,
almost all of them oriented to the West.
Third world people's attitudes towards the West is varied. There were
facing West with rejection (discontinuities). Instead some are addressing the
West with absolute acceptance and relevance (continuity).45 The countries
that adopt Secularism-Scientific choose the attitude of acceptance and
relevance. For them, the West is the prototype of renewal and a source of
knowledge. All are from the West accepted, while the products of tradition
tends to be abandoned. But on the other hand, they tend to sacrifice the
identity and eroded in westernization.
In brief, according to Said, orientalism contains at least the following
connotation. First, it refers to a mode of thinking based on the difference in
ontology and epistemology between Orient and Occident. the Orient and
Occident are in separate hemispheres on earth, opposing each other in may
23
respects due to their striking differences, politically, economically, and even
linguistically. Second, it refers to a way of dominance of the powerful West
over the weak East and its oppression of the latter.46
46
24
In this chapter, the writer would like to analyze the depiction of Orient and
Occident relationship among Ireland, England and America by revealing some
related data to explain the result of analysis. The first thing the writer would like
to do is to describe and analyze the characterization of main character, Frank
McCourt in the novel Angela’s Ashes by Frank McCourt. Later on, the writer will
explain the position of Ireland, England and America through the perceptions,
action, and phenomena that occur to the main character.
A. The Characteristics of Frank McCourt
Frank is a child who was born in America but grows in Ireland. He is the
eldest son of Irish parents, Angela Shehaan and Malachy McCourt. In his four
years old, Frank and his family returned to their parents’s homeland, Ireland
whose citizen were still depend on and influenced by its old master, England. The
worse poverty that he experiences in Ireland has set his mind about the image of
Ireland that he has stated in the first page of the novel as “the miserable Irish
Catholic childhood.”(McCourt, 1996: 11). The better life that is offered by
England and he experienced in America draw him to leave and go out from
Ireland to find his successful and better life for his family.
Frank becomes the major character in this novel because he is the most
25
the protagonist character because the novel focuses on his life who struggles to
pursue his dream to go back to America.
The characteristics of Frank will be clearly revealed on some point of his
traits below:
1. Dreamer
Frank has a habit of dreamer since he was three years old. He is keening
to dream about many things that could make him happy, but sometimes
impossible. It can be firstly seen when he was live in Brooklyn, America, in
his three years old. At the time, her mother was getting sick because of
Margareth death, Frank’s youngest sister. She stayed in the bed all day and
hardly moving. Therefore, Frank must had responsibilities to take care his
brothers, Malachy, and the twin, Oliver and Eugene who is only less one
year. Fortunately, his neighbours came and help him, they were Mrs.
Leibowitz and Minnie MacAdorey. They were taking care of them very well
by giving them foods and taking care the twins.
“Malachy and I sit on the floor drinking from mugs. We spoon the soup into the twin’s mouths. It is lovely and hot and tasty. My mother never makes soup like this and I wonder if there’s any chance Mrs.
Leibowitz could ever be my mother.” (McCourt, 1996: 38)
When Mrs. Leibowitz gave them the soup, Frank was so delighted. Frank
started dreaming to have her as her mother so that he could have a soup
everyday. It was not only Mrs. Leibowitz that gave them foods, but also
Minnie MacAdorey.
“She goes down the hall and bring back a pot of mashed potatoes for
all of us. There is plenty of salt and butter in the potatoes and I wonder
like this all the time. If I could have Mrs. Leibowitz and Minnie for
mothers at the same time I’d have no end of soup and mashed
potatoes. (McCourt, 1996: 39)
Minnie MacAdorey also gave them a pot of mashed potatoes and,
again, Frank started to dream her to be her mother too. The quotations
above show that Frank is a dreamer. Seeing the kindness of his neighbour
in America, he cannot hold his self to dream of having them as his mother
because of the lack of food that he experience in his family. As the poor,
Frank only simply dreams about what can make his life better than now,
such as the nourishing food that is offered by Mrs. Leibowitz and Minnie
MacAdorey.
It is not only his poor life, but also his physical condition that draw
him to be a dreamer. In his thirteen years old, he and his family must
stayed in his uncle’s house, Laman Griffin. It was because Frank and his
family had evicted from their old house for they had not payed the rent
cost of the house to rent man since four weeks. A few months living in
Laman’s house, he instead got a problem with Laman Griffin. Laman has
promised to Frank for letting him borrow his bicycle by requisitioning
Frank to clean his chamber pot47 everyday. One day, Frank reminded his
uncle about the promise, otherwise Frank himself forgot his job to clean
the chamber pot that day. Laman who was drunk that day get angry to
Frank. Frank was getting offended started to insult his uncle and made him
27
attack Frank. His weak body could not defense every punch of Laman
Griffin. And it made him run away from Laman’s house and never willing
to come back. He left the house and follow the streets. In his walk, he was
instead dreaming:
“I dream of how I'll get back at Laman someday. I'll go to America
and see Joe Louis. I'll tell him my troubles and he'll understand because he comes from a poor family. He'll show me how to build up my muscles, how to hold my hands and use my feet. He'll show me how to dig my chin into my shoulder the way he does and how to let go with a right uppercut that will send Laman flying. I'll drag Laman to the graveyard at Mungret where his family and Mam's family are buried and I'll cover him with earth all the way to his chin so that he won't be able to move and he'll beg for his life and I'll say, End of the road, Laman, you're going to meet your Maker, and he'll beg and beg while I trickle dirt on his face till it's covered completely and he's gasping and asking God for forgiveness for not giving me the bike and
punching me all over the house” (McCourt, 1996: 295)
The quotation above shows that Frank is clearly a dreamer. He dreams
of having the nice body and the strenght to his body by going to America
and meet American people, Joe Louis. So that he can fight Laman and win
the fighting because the strong body he has from Joe Louis. He dreams
that he can make Laman take a knee in front of him and beg him to sorry.
Implicitely, he also dreams of a dignity that make him being regarded by
other people, in this case, Laman Griffin. It can be seen from the words
“he'll beg and beg”. The begging that Laman does can means a regarding
to Frank and give a dignity to himself.
2. Envious
The appearance of Frank is not attractive. It can be seen since Frank
visiting his house to see the condition of his mother after losing her
daughter, Margaret. It was Frank that welcome them, but they only asked
his name and his age then passed him. Until they meet Malachy and smile.
“Malachy runs smiling to the big women. When he smiles you can see
how white and straight and pretty his teeth are and you can see the shiny blue of his eyes, the pink of his cheeks. All that makes the big
women smile and I wonder why they didn’t smile when they talked to me.” (McCourt, 2996: 43)
From the quotation above, Frank seems jealous to his brother’s
appearance. He wonders why people who meet him are never interested in
him like Malachy does. He realizes that he is not like his brother, Malachy,
whose appearance is like an American whom Frank always describe by the
white and pretty teeth (McCourt, 1996: 138). Frank who really admire to
everything about America is getting jealous of Malachy who physically
has American’s characteristic with his white and pretty teeth and always
seems charming and bring the smile to everyone whenever he goes.
Frank does not only get jealous of the fortune Malachy has in his
appearance, he also get jealous of the fortune of his neighbour that get the
better life than his. At the time when there was a war in England, English
agents were recruiting Irishmen to work in their munition factories and the
pay was good. People’s around Frank mostly had their fathers go to
England and started working there. Frank could see the significant changes
in their lifes.
29
cups they stick out their little fingers to show how refine they are.[...] They have electricity now so they can see things they never saw before ... [...] at dinnertime and teatime the new rich mothers stand at their doors and call to their children, Mikey, Kathleen, Paddy, come in
for yeer dinner. Come in for the lovely leg o’lamb and gorgeous green peas and the floury white potatoes” (McCourt, 1996: 217)
Frank sees his neighbour whose father work in England can have
electricity and the great foods in their house such as meat, potatoes,
sweets, and cakes. They also act the way rich people act, by sticking out
their little fingers when dringking a tea to show how refine they are. At the
time like that, Frank’s family do not have anything to be proud, they just
have tea and bread. It is because Frank’s father does not go to England but
only sit by the fire in the kitchen. Seeing the changes of their neighbours,
Frank said to his father:
“I say to him, Why can’t you go to England, Dad, so we can have electricity and a wireless and Mam can stand at the door and tell the
world what we’re having at dinnertime?” (McCourt, 1996: 218)
Frank suggests his father to go to England too like his neighbours do.
It is because Frank also want to be like his neighbours that have electricity,
great food and can show off his new wealthy to others. The statement
above show that Frank is an envious person. Frank’s suggestion for his
father shows that Frank is envious with the life of their neighbours can get
from working in England.
3. Disobeying
Frank is also known as the disobeying person. It can be seen when he
worked in Eason. Ltd that distribute English newspapers and The Irish
McCaffrey, not to read them or he could lose his Faith. However, He
ignored the prohibition and kept running into those English and Protestant
newspapers. to know the information about English.
“I keep reading The Irish Times and wondering if it's an occasion of sin though I don't care. As long as Theresa Carmody is in heaven not coughing I don't go to confession anymore. I read The Irish Times and The Times of London because that tells me what the King is up to every day and what Elizabeth and Margaret are doing. I read English women's magazines for all the food articles and the answers to women's questions.” (McCourt, 1996: 352)
From the quotation above, Frank who is curious about English people does
not scare about the dangerous of consequence. Frank is not afraid of losing
the Faith or getting the sin that has been warned by his manager of reading
those papers
The paper I like is the News of the World. It's banned in Ireland but people sneak it in from England for the shocking pictures of girls in swimming suits that are almost not there. Then there are stories of people committing all kinds of sins you wouldn't find in Limerick, getting divorces, committing adultery.(McCourt, 1996: 301-302)
.The curiousity that Frank has about the life in England also gets him
to the newspaper that even is banned in Ireland. Even the papers is illegal
to be read by Irish people, he instead joins to the people who ignore the
prohibition. He is excited about everything that is never found in Ireland
like the pictures of girls in swimming suit and stories about other sins like
divorcing and commiting adultery. For knowing the news about all those
31
4. Unconfident
Everytime he goes to school, he never go through the proper street. He
prefers to take the lanes rather than take the street to reach school because
they will meet the boys from Christian Brother’ School and Crescent
Collage48 who are come from the rich class, in contrast, he is just the boy
who come from the lane with a mess appearance.
“We go to school through lanes and back streets so that we won't meet the respectable boys who go to the Christian Brothers'School or the rich ones who go to the Jesuit school, Crescent College. The Christian Brothers' boys wear tweed jackets, warm woolen sweaters, shirts, ties and shiny new boots. We know they're the ones who will get jobs in the civil service and help the people who run the world. The Crescent College boys wear blazers and school scarves tossed around their necks and over their shoulders to show they're cock o' the walk. They have long hair which falls across their foreheads and over their eyes so that they can toss their quiffs like Englishmen.” (McCourt: 1996, 272)
It is clearly that Frank is not confident to be faced with the boys of
Christian Brothers’ School and and Crescent Collage. He is willing to
avoid meeting them in the street because he is ashamed of his poor
appearance and feel inferior. They are looking superior by their apperance
in Frank’s eyes, where their appearance are mostly similar to the
48Christian Brothers’ School or Irish Christian Brothers is a term of the member of religious
phenomena that occur to him considers to three different countries, Ireland which
occupies the Orient while England and America is the Occident. The writer does
not consider Ireland as the Orient based on its geografical location that is in East,
but deciding based on its position as the post-colonial country. The explanations
below will assist to define Ireland as the Orient and England and America as the
Occident through Frank’s view.
1. Ireland as the Orient
Ireland is a place where Frank with his family live after their returning
from America. He exactly lives in county Limerick, Ireland. The Ireland’s
suffering which is a background of the poverty experienced by Frank and his
family becomes the main factor of Frank’s wish for going back to America to
reach the better life.
a. The Lower Class Country
The freedom of Ireland from English colonization has been declared
since 1919. However, the story of this novel still depicted the situation of
Ireland that has not been completely independent. It is because people in
Ireland still depend their life on English. It can be seen in this novel when
English agent start recruiting Irish men to work in their munition factory at
the time the war is on between English and German, as Frank said below:
“What is Dad to do? There’s war on. English agents are recruiting
Irishmen to work in their munitions factories, the pay is good, there
are no jobs in Ireland, and if the wife turns her back to you there’s no
short-age of women in England where the able men are off fighting Hitler and Mussolini and you can do anything you like as long as you
remember you’re Irish and lower class and don’t try to rise above your
33
In this novel, England is a background of Ireland’s history that has
crucial impacts toward the condition of Ireland at the time. Inasmuch as
England is the old master that ever ruled Ireland for approximately eight
centuries in the past times, the life in Ireland are still interfered by the
English. The phenomenon above shows the position of both Ireland and
England where Ireland that is roled as the worker in England was placed in
the lower position than England that provide the job for Ireland.
Additionally, at the statement above, Frank has straightforwardly said
about the position of Ireland itself where Frank regards the Irish as the
lower class from the words you’re Irish and lower class that have to
behave their selves when they are working in England. It is clearly show
that Ireland is a lower class country.
There is no jobs in Ireland can indicate that Ireland still depends on
other country to reach the prosperity, especially on its old master, England.
It makes Ireland are still called as the dependent country because of its
dependence on English. The dependence of Ireland toward its old master,
England, in economic field show that Ireland represents the Orient
chatacteristic that is dependent where England provides jobs in their
munitions factories and they recruit the Irishmen that have no job in
Ireland.
b. The Lack of Opportunity
The lack of opportunity is experienced by Irish especially for people
system which is still exist in Ireland. In Ireland, the class system is really
strong. The class system firstly can be seen from the place where they live.
There are names of place of living in Ireland, there are avenue, road, street,
terrace, mews, place, close, lane. The lowest class people are they who
lives in the lane where the houses are very worst. In contrast, the highest
class people are they who live in the Avenue. Frank describes people who
live in Avenue are rich, and where houses have gardens. (McCourt, 1996:
358).
Everyone is able to know the class of people through the place where
they live. It can be seen when Frank was applying a job and firstly having
an interview from the manager of Eason. Ltd. The manager, Mr.
McCaffrey asked him to write a paragraph explaining about the reason of
him come for the job and how he proposes to rise in the ranks of Eason
“What’s this? Says Mr. McCaffrey. Do we have here a twisting of
the truth?
I don’t know, Mr. McCaffrey
Little Barington Street. That’s a lane. Why are you calling it a street?
They call it a street, Mr. McCaffrey
Don’t be getting above yourself, boy. You live in a lane, not a street.
35
The manager was surprised because Frank writes his address, Little
Barrington as the street, instead of Little Barrington lane that is the fact.
The manager reminds him that it is lane and can not be changed to be
street even only the name. The conversations above shows that a name of
place which is a lane cannot be changed to be another state which is street.
It also implies that people who are from the lane are banned to wish a
higher level of place.
People who are from the lane also get discriminative treatment.
There’s no opportunity for them to reach a higher level of their life such as
working in the civil service or government, go to university or even run the
world. It can be seen when Frank avoided to meet the boys from Chritian
Bothers’ School by taking the lane instead of the street everytime he goes
to school. He avoided them because of their appearance that looks
luxurious.
“We go to school through the lanes and back streets so that we won’t meet the respectable boys who go to the Christian Brothers’ School or the
rich ones who go to the Jesuit school, Crescent College. The Christian
Brothers’ boys wear tweed jackets, warm woolen sweaters, shirt, ties and shiny new boots. We know they’re are the ones who will get jobs in the
civil service and help the people who run the world. the Crescent College boys wear blazers and school scarves rossed around their necks and over
their shoulders to show they’re cock o’the walk. They have long hair
which falls across their foreheads and over their eyes so that they can toss
their quiffs like Englishmen. We know they’re the ones who will go to
univeristy, take over the family business, run rhe government, run the world. We will be the messenger boys on bicycles who deliver their
groceries or we’ll go to England to work on the building sites.” (McCourt,
Frank sees the boys of Christian Brothers’ School as the repectable
boys who comes from rich family. It can be seen from their appearance by
wearing tweed jackets, warm woolen sweaters, shirt, ties and shiny new
boots. They’re are the ones who will get jobs in the civil service, go to
university and run the world. It is different with him and the boys from the
lane that will be the messenger boys on bicycles who deliver their
groceries or go to England to work on the building sites. The statement
above shows that people who are from the lane is only able to work for
filling the daily necessaries without any opportunity for increasing the
level of life for instance working as a messenger boy. There will be only
boys who have much money and good appearances that can have the
opportunity to be success. Frank realizes that the opportunity will not
come for him who is from the lane.
The class distinction has also gotten him fed up and realizes who
himself is and it makes him to bury his dream to be a Jesuit49.
“I'd like to be a Jesuit some day but there's no hope of that when you grow up in a lane. Jesuits are very particular. They don't like poor people. They like people with motor cars who stick out their little
fingers when they pick up their teacups.” (McCourt, 1996: 245)
Frank has a dream to be a Jesuit. Frank sees that the life of a Jesuit is
very peaceful. He can see it everytime he go to Jesuit Church for a Mass.
They live in the warm place, sleep in a bed with sheets blankets pillows,
get up to a nice warm house and a warm church with nothing to do except
49 Member of a Roman Catholic religious order called the Society of Jesus that was founded by
37
say Mass hear confession. But, in the statement above, Frank realizes that
he is a person from lane. And there is no hope for people from the lane like
him to be a Jesuit. They prefers to take the boys from the rich people, like
people with motor cars who stick out their little fingers when they pick up
their teacups. It shows that there is no opportunity, especially for poor
people to be a part of Jesuit as the particular organization of the country.
Another proof that shows the lack of opportunity in Ireland is the
moment someone from Christian Brothers slaps the door in Frank’s face.
Frank who is known as the smart boy is not also given an opportunity to
reach the higher level of his school. It can be seen when Frank’s teacher,
Mr. O’Halloran, told Frank’s mother about how bright Frank is and
suggest him to continue his school to secondary school. Mr. O’Halloran
send him to Christian Brothers’s School. But, when Frank and his mother
went to Christian Brothers to inquire about further schooling, the people
from the school instead slamed the door in his face and refused him.
“She knocks on the door at the Christian Brothers and says wants to
see the superior, Brother Murray. He comes to the door, looks at my mother and me and says, What?
Mam says, This is my son, Frank, Mr. O’Halloran at Leamy’s says
he’s bright and would there be any chance of getting him in here for
secondary school?
We don’t have room for him, says Brother Murray and closes the door in our faces.” (McCourt, 1996: 289).
The rejection above has completed the proof about the lack of
