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THE MIND LEARNING

TO READ

Roelien Herholdt & Prof. Elbie Henning

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CONTENTS

 A baseline

 A neuroscience perspective

 Contextualisation

 Preparation for later learning to read

 Speech circuits

 Visual circuits  Learning to read

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This presentation draws widely on the works of:

 Prof Stanislas Dehaene – Reading in the brain

 Dr Jenny Thomson – University of London

 Dr Duncan Milne –Teaching the brain to read

 Prof Leonard White and Prof Dale Purvis – Duke University

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SOME QUESTIONS

True or false

 The foundations for reading are laid when children start with grade R or

in some cases the last years of nursery school

 Areas facilitating reading is only found in the left hemisphere of the

brain

 Whole language approaches or balanced language approaches are the

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WHY NEUROSCIENCE?

  Understanding a system, in this case the brain, can assist in

understanding how to this system works

  Empowering teachers and people working with children with an

understanding of the neuroscience of reading can lead to better

ways of assisting children

  An understanding of the underlying science can assist in the

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CONTEXTUALISATION

Literacy, including reading, must be understood within the South African

context

South Africa is a multilingual country

o Bi-/multilingualism is the norm rather than the exception

o Languages differ in terms of their regularity – how well sounds/

phonemes map onto letters

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TYPES OF LANGUAGES

  Logographic languages

  Transparent languages

o  Letter-sound (grapheme-phoneme) connections are regular

o  Phonological awareness – predictor of reading achievement

o Phoneme most important component

  Less transparent languages

o  Lots of irregularities or exceptions

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LEARNING TO READ

Children start on the path to becoming readers in the first year of life

o Visual development – invariant visual recognition

o Linguistic development – speech comprehension

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P R E PA R AT I O N F O R R E A D I N G

Prenatally and first six months after birth

 Rhythm of native language in utero

 Linguistic contrasts e.g. /ba/ /ga/

 Left superior temporal region – analysis of speech sounds

 Temporal lobe – extracting phonemes, words and sentences

 Left inferior prefrontal region - Broca’s area – previously

thought to only involve speech production and grammatical skills, activated in babies listening to speech

 Predisposition for acquiring a language

 Prosody – myth of left hemisphere dominance

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P R E PA R AT I O N F O R R E A D I N G

First three years –tuning to native language

 six months – vowels of native language

 one year – consonants of native language

o  Japanese babies /r/ /l/ and in South Africa?

o  Discards speech combinations not in native language

o  Speech segments occurring most often become first

words

 two to three years

o vocabulary increases by 10 – 20 words per day

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READY TO READ

  Age five to six

 Vocabulary of several 1000 words in native language

 Basic grammatical rules of language

 Visual system developed invariant recognition

o  Maximal plasticity or a sensitive period

  Sophisticated speech circuits, which will assist in making sense of the

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VISUAL CIRCUITS

  Simultaneously to the speech circuits the visual circuits develop

  Infants learns to

o parse visual scenes into objects and to track them, even when

they are concealed for a period of time

o  recognise faces – by 9 months they specialise in recognition of

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VISUAL CIRCUITS

  One year olds

o  can discriminate between objects using contours, texture, and

whether they are convex or concave

o when viewing an object from several view points they can infer

its three dimensional shape, using the type of edge junctions (T, Y or L)

  Two year olds can break an object down into its parts or elements

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STAGES IN READING

Logographic or pictorial stage

  Recognises words as objects

 Uses color, shape, letter orientation and curvature

 Exploits superficial cues

 Very artificial form of reading

  The right occipito-temporal region distinguishes consonant strings

from words – bilateral processing

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PHONOLOGICAL STAGE

 Grapheme-phoneme links as well as link between spoken and written language

 Phonemic awareness – spoken words consist of phonemes

 Explicit teaching – alphabetic principle: phonemes map onto graphemes

 Word length and grapheme complexity increase reading time

 Illiterates can discriminate sounds, detect rhyme, etc. but struggle with

substitution

•  Mastery of alphabetic principle changes brain wiring

•  Visual system breaks words into graphemes

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P H O N E M E S O R G R A P H E M E S

F I R S T ?

 Spiral causality

o Grapheme awareness focus attention on phonemes o  Phonemic awareness enhances grapheme awareness

  Phonological stage is characterised by

o  regularisation mistakes of irregular words such as “said” will be

read as “sa-it”, “key” will be read as “kay”

o  Diffculty reading words with complex consonant structures, e.g.

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ORTHOGRAPHIC STAGE

  Reading time no longer determined by word length or grapheme complexity

 Higher frequency words read faster than rare words

 Reading becomes more fluent

 Parallelism as opposed to serial processing

•  Up to 8 letters at a time

•  Still processes every letter though

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THE LETTERBOX

 Also called the visual word form area

  Located in the left lateral occipito-temporal sulcus (valley), next to

the fusiform gyrus (hill)

  This area is activated, irrespective of the language which is read,

the reading direction (left to right or right to left) or the type of

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T WO R E A D I N G PAT H WAY S

Phonological decoding route

  Depends on phoneme-grapheme correspondence

  Generative – “self-teaching effect”

  Steps:

o Segmentation

o Transcoding – link grapheme to phoneme o Fusion or concatenation

  Assess through pseudo-words, e.g. labbit

o Lexicalisation, e.g. labbit is read as rabbit

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T WO R E A D I N G PAT H WAY S

Direct access or lexical route

  After lots of repetition

o Develops only after years of practice

o  Creates illusion of whole word reading though fast and efficient automatisation

of processes

  Depends on establishment of a direct connection between visual and auditory systems

  Leads to less mistakes and is faster

  Used most often by fluent readers

o Left hemispheric dominance for processing in reading occurs o Prosody still processed in right hemisphere

  Assess using irregular words, e.g. said

o Mistake = regularisation e.g. sa-it

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SOME UNDISPUTED FACTS

  Reading changes the brain

o Cortical areas for face, object and colour recognition become attuned to

graphemes and written word

  Reading improves reading

o Left inferior prefrontal cortex

  Poor readers’ reading achievement gets progressively worse without

intervention

  Reading must be taught explicitly

o Children do not acquire reading spontaneously

o Learning takes time to master – in more opaque languages learning to read takes

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MIRROR READING/WRITING

o  Called boustrophedon

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DYSLEXIA

 Neurologically based – phonological pathway

 Often hereditary

 Leads to problems with reading, writing and spelling

 Associated with difficulties in

o Concentration

o  Short term memory o Organisation

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HELPFUL STRATEGIES

 Explicit teaching of phonemic awareness

 Explicit teaching of alphabetical principle

  Phonics programme must be structured and sequential, e.g. teach regular

frequently used phonemes first

 Simultaneous teaching of graphemes and phonemes

 Multisensory – feel pronunciation, use concrete letters, hear & say

 Metacognitive, e.g. LCWC for irregular words

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BRUCE MCCANDLISS

 Phonics vs whole language experiment

  WL did better on first 30 words learned, but on learning the second 30

words they started forgetting the first words

  Phonics group took longer to master the grapheme-phoneme combinations,

but:

o Improved steadily

o Did better on encountering new words

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TEACHING

 Should we aim to increase verbal vocabulary?

 Should we teach letter sounds, letter names or both?

  Should our teaching of letter formation be linked to our teaching of

phonemes, spelling and reading?

  Should we teach graphemes or phonemes first?

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REFERENCES

  Bhatt, R.S., Hayden, A., Bertin, E. & Joseph, J. (2006). Infants’ perception of information along object bounderies: Concavities versus convexities. Journal of

Experimental Child Psychology, 94(2), 91-113.

  Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell

  De Haan, M., Johnson, M.H. & Halit, H. (2003). Development of face sensitive event related potentials during infancy: a review. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 51(1),

45-58.

  Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In Patterson, K. E., Marshall, J. C. & Colheart, M. (Eds.), Surface dyslexia: Cognitive and

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REFERENCES

  Gathers, A.D., Bhatt, R., Corbly, C.R., Farley, A.B. &Joseph, J.E. (2004). Developmental shifts in cortical loci for face and object recognition. NeuroReport, 15(10), 1549-1553.

  Kellman.P. J., & Spelke, E.S. (1983). Perception of partly occluded objects in infancy. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 483 – 524

  Kraebel, K.S. , West, R.N. & Gerhardstein, P. (2007). The influence of training views on

infants’ long-term memory for simple 3D shapes. Developmental Psychobiology, 49(4), 406-420.

  Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early language acquisition: Cracking the speecg code. Nature Reviews

Neuroscience, 5(11), 831-843.

  Mehler, J., Jusczyk, P., Halsted, N., Bertoncini, J. & Amiel-Tison, C. (1988). A precursor of language acquisition in young infants. Cognition, 29, 143-178

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REFERENCES

  Morais, J., Bertelson, P., Cary, L. & Alegria, J. (1986). Literacy training and speech segmentation. Cognition, 24, 45-64.

  Pascalis, O., De Haan, M. & Nelson, V.A. (2002). Is face processing species-specific during

the first year of life? Science, 296(5571), 1321-1323

  Pena, M., Maki, A., Kovacic, D., Dehaene-Lambertz, G. Koizumi, H., Bouquet, F. & Mehler

(2003). Sounds of silence: An optical topography study of language recognition at birth.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(20), 11702 -11705

  Robinson, A.J. & Pascalis, O. (2004). Development of flexible visual recognition menory in

human infants. Developmental Science, 7(5), 527-533.

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  Share, D.L. (1999). Phonological recoding and orthographic learning: A direct test of the self teaching hypothesis. Journal of experimental Child Psychology, 72(2), 95-129.

  Shuwairi, S.M., Albert, M.K., Johnson, S.P. (2007). Discrimination of possible and

impossible objects in infancy. Psychological Science, 18(4), 303-307.

  Son, J.Y., Smith, L.B. & Goldstone, R.L. (2008). Simplicity and generalisation: Short-cutting abstraction in children’s object categorisations. Cognition, 108(3), 626-638.

  Wang, S.H. & Baillargeon, R. (2008). Detecting impossible changes in infancy: a

three-system account. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(1), 17-23.

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REFERENCES

  Zocolotti, P., De Luca, M., Di Pace, E., Gasperini, F., Judica, A. &

Spinelli, D. (2005). Word length effect in early reading and in

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