ECOLOGY–ECONOMIC ANALISYS OF FISHERIES
MANAGEMENT BASE ONCORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM
(CASE STUDY LIWUTONGKIDI ISLAND WATERS, BUTON,
SOUTHEAST SULAWESI PROVINCE)
ABDUL HARIS LAIN
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
iii
I declared that thesis of Ecology–Economic Analysis of Fisheries Management
based on Coral Reef Ecosystem (Case Study Liwutongkidi Island Waters, Buton,
Southeast Sulawesi Province)
is my own work under the direction from
Supervisory Commission and has not been submitted in any form to any
university. Sources of information derived or quoted from the published work or
others have been acknowledged in the text and reference at the end of this thesis
Bogor, April 2011
v
ABDUL HARIS LAIN Ecology–Economic Analysis of Fisheries Management
based on Coral Reef Ecosystem (Case Study Liwutongkidi Island Waters, Buton,
Southeast Sulawesi Province)
Supervised by LUKY ADRIANTO and
NEVIATY P. ZAMANI.
Coral reef one among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystem on
the earth. This article identifies ecological and economic value of coral reef at
Liwutongkidi, Buton District. The purpose of this study are: (1) Identified base
substrate composition characteristic, fish community structure (2) Estimated coral
reef ecosystem economical value and (3) Prepared coral reef ecosystem
management concept based on ecology-economic model on Liwutongkidi Islands
marine conservation area. The percentage of live coral cover estimated around
13:01% - 72.50% on the island Siompu, Kadatua and Liwutongkidi, with the
average 46.92% based on lifeform and can be classified as moderate category.
Based on reef fish census was found that the major fish group was 3,899
individuals, indicator fish groups was 347 individuals, and the target fish group
was 1625 individuals with a diversity between 2.71 - 4.72, which has mean they
were all in medium till high category, the uniformity of reef fish between 0.69 -
0.92 which has mean a high category and stable communities. Economy Total
(NET) from the direct benefits of coral fisheries resources utilization in coral
Kapoa Village, Villages and Countryside Tongali Waonu were respectively Rp.
11.579.106,17, Rp. 43.051.173,27 and Rp. 15.640.846,46
per month. System
analysis and coral fisheries simulation result showed that the third scenario was
more ideal in fish biomass simulation analysis on Liwutongkidi Islands
conservation area and surrounds, there was a reciprocal relationship amongst
catch efforts and fish biomass in a whole time.
vii
ABDUL HARIS LAIN Analisis–Ekologi Pengelolaan Perikanan Berbasis
Ekosistem Terumbu Karang (Studi Kasus Perairan Pulau Liwutongkidi,
Kabupaten Buton, Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara).
Dibimbing oleh LUKY
ADRIANTO and NEVIATI P. ZAMANI.
Terumbu karang merupakan ekosistim laut yang sangat kaya akan keaneka
ragaman hayati. Terumbu karang memiliki fungsi dan peranan penting bagi
kesuburan perairan laut. Dalam penelitian adalah untuk mengidentifikasi nilai
ekologi dan ekonomi terumbu karang di perairan Pulau Liwutongkidi, Kabupaten
Buton. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah (1) mengidentifikasi karakteristik
komposisi substrat dasar, struktur komunitas ikan dan korelasinya dengan habitat
di ekosistem terumbu karang kawasan konservasi Pulau Liwutongkidi (2)
Mengestimasi nilai ekonomi ekosistem terumbu karang di kawasan konservasi
Pulau Liwutongkidi (3) menyusun konsep pengelolaan ekosistem terumbu karang
berdasarkan model ekologi-ekonomi di kawasan konservasi Pulau Liwutongkidi.
Persentase penutupan karang hidup di Pulau Siompu, Kadatua dan Liwutongkidi
antara 13.01% - 72.50%, rata-rata persentase penutupan 46.92% berdasarkan
lifeform dapat digolongkan kedalam kategori sedang. Hasil sensus kelompok ikan
mayor sebanyak 3899 individu dari 26 famili, kelompok ikan indikator dengan
jumlah 347 individu sedangkan kelompok ikan target adalah 1625 individu dari
17 famili dengan keanekaragaman antara 2.71 - 4.72% termasuk kedalam
kategori sedang sampai tinggi, keseragaman ikan karang antara 0.69 - 0.92
memiliki keseragaman tinggi komunitas stabil. Nilai Ekonomi Total (NET) dari
manfaat langsung penggunaan sumberdaya perikanan karang di Desa Kapoa,
Desa Waonu dan Desa Tongali masing-masing adalah sebesar Rp. 11.579.106,17,
Rp. 43.051.173,27 dan Rp. 15.640.846,46 per bulan.
Hasil analisis system dan
smulasi ekosistem perikanan karang skenario 3 lebih ideal dalam analisis
simulasi biomasa ikan di kawasan konservasi Pulau Liwutongkidi dan sekitarnya
ada hubungan timbal balik antara jumlah penangkapan dengan biomasa ikan
sepanjang waktu.
ix
ABDUL HARIS LAIN Ecology–Economic Analysis of Fisheries Management
based on Coral Reef Ecosystem (Case Study Liwutongkidi Island Waters, Buton,
Southeast Sulawesi Province)
Supervised by LUKY ADRIANTO and
NEVIATY P. ZAMANI.
Coral reef, as part of marine ecosystem, has a highly rich biodiversity.
This ecosystem is a habitat for marine organism forming complex food chains. As
one of natural ecosystems, coral reef has function and important role in
maintaining marine water fertility and coastal community economy.
In order to understand the change of coral reef ecosystem condition in
Liwutongkidi Island and its surrounding, there is a need to have study related to
potential, changes and the use of coral reef with the ecology-economy approaches
as a foundation in determining policy approach pattern. The pattern aimed to
study uses a model of ecology-economy approach for coral reef based - integrated
and sustainable fisheries management. The goals are 1) identifying characteristic
of base substrate composition, fish community, and its correlation with habitat in
coral reef ecosystem in conservation area of Liwutongkidi Island; 2) estimating
economic value of coral reef in conservation area of Liwutongkidi Island; 3)
arranging concept on coral reef ecosystem management based on
ecology-economy model in conservation area of Liwutongkidi Island.
Data collecting on coral fih community in the research area of
Liwutongkidi Island, Siompu and Kadatua used survey method of Line Intercept
Transect (LIT) English
at.al 1994) with several modification
CRITIC-COREMAP LIPI (2004). The degradation occurs on coral reef ecosystem,
therefore a tool is needed to measure the level of degradation by diversity index
(H), domination (E). Selecting respondent as research unit used a method
(purposive sampling). Purposive is a researcher to determine correspondent based
on its own opinion or argument as research sample. In order to see the influence
of community social and economy using an approach of change in productivity or
known as Effect on Production (EOP) according to what has been done by Cesar
1996 dan Molberg & Folke 1999.
Life coral coverage percentage in Siompu, Kadatua and Liwutongkidi is
around 13.01% - 72.50%, and average of coverage percentage is 46.92% based
on
lifeform that can be grouped into medium category. Based on coral mortality
index analysis of healthy level 0.17% – 0.88%, coral approaching 0 has low coral
death ratio and high coral health level and coral approaching 1 has low coral
health or high coral death ratio.
x
directly function on fisheries resources usage in Kapoa, Waonu and Tongali are
IDR 11.579.106,17, IDR 43.051.173,27 and IDR 15.640.846,66 per month. The
result of system analysis and simulation of coral fisheries ecosystem from
scenario 1,2,3
In order to value the success of sustainable coral fisheries ecosystem,
monitoring and evaluation need information collected periodically, such as
ecology effect, coverage, and number of biota density in the conservation area.
Coastal zone management plan cannot be measured partially as only in one place.
Monitoring and evaluation on the management are also needed. Successfulness is
about monitoring and evaluation on the activities and it is not the final result. It is
simple but it should be responsible.
can be stated that scenario 3 is more ideal in analysing fish
biomass simulation in conservation area of Liwutongkidi Island and its
surrounding. The simulation result concluded that there is mutual relationship
between number of capture/catch and fish biomass all time.
xi
© Copyright Bogor Agricultural University, tahun 2010
Copyright are protected by law
xiii
MANAGEMENT BASE ONCORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM
(Case Stydy Liwutongkidi Island Waters, Buton, Southeast
Sulawesi Province)
ABDUL HARIS LAIN
Thesis
As a part of requirements to achieve degree of
Master of Science
in Management of Coastal and Marine Resources Study Program
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
xiv
xv
Name
Liwutongkidi Island Waters, Buton, Southeast
Sulawesi Province)
: Abdul Haris Lain
SRN
: C 252 080 364
Study Program
: Coastal and Marine Resources Management
Approved by Advisory Board
Dr. Ir. Luky Adrianto, M.Sc Dr. Ir. Neviaty P. Zamani, M.Sc
Supervisor
Co-Supervisor
Acknowledged by
Head of Study Program
Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr. Ir. Mennofatria Boer, DEA
Dr. Ir. Dahrul Syah, M.Sc. Agr
xvii
Thanks to God Allah SWT who has given His mercy and the guidance’s
so this scientific paper has been finished in perfectly. The subject of this research
is Analysis of Ecology-Economic in Management of Fisheries Based on Coral
Reef Ecosystem (Case Study in Shallow Water Area of Liwutongkidi Island,
Regency of Buton, South East Sulawesi Province)
For this opportunity, allow me to convey many of thanks to:
1.
Dr. Ir. Luky Adrianto, M.Sc as a chief of supervisions commission and Dr. Ir.
Neviaty P. Zamani, M.Sc as a commission members who has given
counseling, powerful direction and input to the author’s.
2.
Prof. Dr. Ir. Mennofatria Boer, DEA as a Head for Study Program of
Management in Coastal Natural Resources and for the whole of study program
staff who has helped and assist to completed my study in University of Bogor
Agriculture (IPB).
3.
Dr. Ir. Achmad Fahrudin, M.Si as a examiner lecturer of outside commission
who has given to response and input to the author’s to completed this thesis.
4.
My lovely wife Hajija Hasanella and my dear child M. Rezal Laing, M.
Mustafa Laing dan M. Fahril Laing who has given to support until I finished
this thesis.
5.
My colleague in SPL as a togetherness, friendship and cooperation for during
this college.
Hopefully, Allah SWT will give his rewards to all of you.
Author’s be aware this thesis is not to prefect, so I still need more
suggestion and input to make it become completed.
Bogor, April 2011
The author was born in the village of Hila island of Ambon on March 9
th,
1966. The author is the first son of six
children from the family ofAbdul Latip
Laing and Arafiah Launuru. In 1986 the author graduated from high school third
country Ambon in the same year the author received in the Pattimura University
Department of Fisheries Processing results.
The author currently works as a staff
Page
LIST OF TABLES...
xxiii
LIST OF FIGURE …...
xxv
LIST OF APPENDIX...
xxvii
1. INTRODUCTION
1
1.1.
Background...
1
1.2.
Issue Formulation ...
2
1.3.
Research Objectives and Benefits ...
3
1.4.
Work Frame …...………...……...
4
2.
STUDY LITERATURE
2.1.
Coral Reef ...
7
2.2.
Reef fish...
9
2.3.
Coral Reef Type...
11
2.4.
Threats on Coral Reef ...
12
2.5.
Conservation Areas ...
12
2.6.
Coral Reef Utilization ...
14
2.7.
Coral Reef Economical Value ...
16
2.8.
Coral Reef Function and Value...
17
2.9.
Ecosystem Approach for Fisheries Management...
18
2.10. Ecosystem-based Management ...
19
2.11. Ecosystem-based Marine and Coastal Management Stages ...
21
3.
METHODOLOGY
3.1.
Selection of the study sites …...
25
3.2.
Method of Research ...
26
3.3.
Data Collection...
26
3.3.1. Primary Data ...
26
3.3.2. Secondary Data ...
27
3.4.
Data Collection ...
27
3.4.1. Biophisic Collection ...
27
3.4.1.1. Water Quality ...
29
3.4.1.2. Coral Fish Community ...
30
3.4.1.3. Lifeform of Coral Reef ...
30
3.4.2 Socio Economic Method ...
31
3.5. Data Analisys ...
33
xx
3.5.1.4. Similarity Index (E) ...
35
3.5.1.5. Dominant Index (C) ...
35
3.5.2. Economic Analysis ...
36
3.5.2.1. Assesment of Economic Valuation ...
36
3.5.2.2. Mesurement of Demant Function Coral
Fish Resources ...
36
3.5.2.3. Analysis Model of Coral Reef Fish
System ………
37
4.
GENERAL CONDITION
4.1. Geographic Location and Administrative Area...
39
4.2. Physical Condition...
40
4.3. Biophysical Condition ...
40
4.3.1.
Coral Reef Condition...
40
4.3.2.
Water Quality …...
41
4.4
Utilization of Fishery Resources ……...
42
4.4.1.
Motor boat/ ship ………...
42
4.4.2.
Type of Fishing Gear...
42
4.4.3.
Climate and Fishing Seasons...
43
4.5. Socio-Economic Condition ………...
44
4.5.1 Accessibility...
44
4.5.2 Population ...
44
4.5.3 Respondent Characteristics...
45
4.5.3.1.
Age of Respondent...
45
4.5.3.2.
Respondent Educational Level...
46
4.5.3.3.
Respondents Livelihoods...
47
4.5.3.4.
Number of families. ...
47
5.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Condition of Coral Reef Ecosystem...
49
5.2. Condition of Basic Substrate Coverage...
49
5.3. Reef Fish Communities...
56
5.4. Fishing Activity of Reef Fishes...
62
5.5
Reef Fisheries Economic Utility Estimation...
65
5.6. Modeling Analysis of Reef Fisheries...
72
5.6.1. Description Model and Conception ...
72
5.6.2. Basic Information Model and Assumptions...
72
5.6.3. Modeling Analysis...
73
5.7
Model of Fisheries Management Based on Reef Fish
Ecosystem...
78
xxi
REFERENCES ...
85
APPENDIX ………
91
xxiii
Page
1.
Ecosystem Valuation according to three main purposes, efficiency,
equity and sustainability ...
24
2.
Type and source of primary data ...
26
3.
Source and type of secondary data ...
27
4.
Water quality measurement ...
29
5.
Structur community of coral base on lifeform and code...
31
6.
Administrative boundaries of Siompu and Kadatua District ...
39
7.
Water quality in Liwutongkidi, Siompu and Kadatua...
41
8.
Distance from villages to the sub-district and district capital city ……
44
9.
Number, density and distribution of Inhabitant...
44
10. Number of inhabitant, head of household (HH), and Fisheries
Household (FH) ……….…....
45
11. Classification of respondent age according to village ………..
46
12. Classification of respondent education level ………
47
13. Respondent classification based on number of families ……….
47
14. The percentage of live coral cover (hard corals, soft corals
and
other biota in
Siompu Island) ………..……
50
15. The percentage of live coral cover on the island Liwutongkidi ……...
52
16. The percentage of live coral cover in Kadatua Island
54
17. Regression coefficient of catch reef fisheries resources in Kapoa,
Waonu and
Tongali Villages. ………...
66
18. Estimation of consumer surplus of reef fish ecosystem
resources …...
67
xxv
Page
1.
Study flowchart using ecology-economy approach...
6
2.
Map of site study...
25
3.
Location Map data capture reef fish community structure
and their correlation ……….………..…..
28
4.
Data collection techniques of coral reef condition using the
LIT
method ……….
29
5.
Technique data collecting fish with
census (UVC) ...
underwater visual
30
6.
Map of Socio Economic survey...
32
7.
Causal loop development model of reef fishery
...
38
8.
The number of boat / ship in Kapoa, Waonu and
Tongali Village...
42
9.
Number of fishing gear in Kapoa, Waonu and
Tongali Village...
43
10.
Percent coverage for each category of biota and substrate
in Siompu Island...
51
11.
Percent of coverage for each basic substrate category
in Liwutongkidi
Island ……….
53
12.
Percent of coverage for each basic substrate category in
Kadatua Island
...
55
13.
Abundance of target fish group according to Family in
Siompu, Liwutongkidi and Kadatua Islands.
...
58
14.
Abundance of major fish group according to Family in
Siompu, Liwutongkidi and Kadatua Islands
Siompu, Liwutongkidi dan Kadatua...
di Pulau
59
15.
Group of Indicator Fish abundance according to Family
xxvi
17.
Participatory visualization of fishing areas ………..
63
18.
Consumer demand curve of coral reef ecosystems in the
Village
Tongali ………...
68
19.
Consumer demand curve of coral reef ecosystems in the
Village
Kapoa ………
68
20.
Consumer demand curve of coral reef ecosystems in the
Village
Waonu ………
69
21.
Sub model of coral reef fisheries ecology and
economy……….
72
22.
Graph of mortality simulation, recruitment, fish stocks, number
of fishing vessel and
total catch………...
74
23.
Simulation Graph of recruitment and fish biomass by reducing
the number of fishing vessel (0.85% or 125
vessels) ………….
75
24.
Simulation Graph of recruitment and fish biomass by reducing
xxvii
Page
1.
Research Station coordinates...
93
2.
Coral categories according to Lifeform...
94
3.
Abundance Amount of Fish Communities in All Stations...
95
4.
Coral Fish Abundance by Type, Family, and individual numbers
on Siompu Island...
100
5.
Coral Fish Abundance by Type, Family, and individual numbers
on Kadatua Island...
101
6.
Coral Fish Abundance by Type, Family, and individual numbers
on Liwutongkidi Island...
102
7.
Calculation of Utility Value Estimation and Coral Fish Utilization
Consumer Surplus in Village Kapoa waters...
103
8.
Calculation of Utility Value Estimation and Coral Fish Utilization
Consumer Surplus in Village Waonu waters ………
108
9.
Calculation of Utility Value Estimation and Coral Fish Utilization
Consumer Surplus in Village Tongali waters ...
113
10. Estimated Length and Weight of Coral Fish in Research Station...
118
11 Fish biomass simulation results using 147
boats. ………..
123
12
Fish biomass simulation results using 147
boats ………..
124
13
Fish biomass simulation results using 125
boats ……….
126
1.1. Background
Indonesian coastal and sea are the high potential diversity area. Coastal
resources take main role play in supporting regional and national economy
development, that increases national income, income source and community
income. Coastal resources have benefits because they are provided in large
amount with wide diversity range, with low price usage.
Coastal area provides productive natural resources as food source, as well as
energy and mineral mine, communication media as well as recreation or tourism.
Therefore, coastal area is the foundation of human sources in fulfilling their needs
in the future.
Coastal development is a changing process to increase community living
level, attached with coastal resources usage. Natural source is changed in this
activity which can affect the environment. The higher the development rate is, the
higher the natural resources usage will be and the bigger the changes in
environment is, especially for coral reefs ecosystem.
Coral reefs is rich ecosystem in biotic diveristy. This ecosystem is the habitat
for sea organisms that structures complex food chains. As a natural ecosystem,
coral reefs plays important role and function for sea fertilizing and economy of
coastal community.
Coral reefs advantage is divided by direct advantage and indirect advantage.
Direct advantage can be used directly by human, for example fish/coral
stones/tourism/research source usage as well as other biota usage, contained in the
area. Indirect advantage can be described as the function of coral reefs as beach
barrier, beach abrasion barricade, biotic diveristy, etc.
According to coral reefs coverage, Indonesia is the second largest after
Australia, which covers as wide as 42.000 km2 (COREMAP-LIPI, 1998). Coral
reefs in Indonesia is estimated as much as around 42.000 km2 or 16.50% of total
world coral reefs. Further, Veron (1995) stated that Indonesian coral reefs is the
Ironically, from year to year, Indonesian coral reefs condition is poor. Based on
COREMAP data (2001) in Yatin and Irmadi (2003), it is known that Indonesian
coral reefs condition is as follows : 6,51% is very good, 26,04% is good, 34,71%
is moderate, and 32,74% is poor. According to P2O-LIPI (2006) Indonesian coral
reefs condition is as follows : 39.50% is poor, 33.50% is moderate, 21.70% is
good, and only 3.50% is very good. The change is caused by two main reasons,
human activity and natural cause.
The decreasing of coral reefs condition in Liwutongkidi Island is caused by
human activities. Based on a research using Line Intercept Transect (LIT) method
by Marine and Fisheries Agency of Buton regency (2007), reported that coral
reefs at Liwutongkidi island and surrounding was badly damaged in certain spots
at 3m and 10m depth. Some fishermen also reported that the damage is caused by
human factors (catching method using potassium, fish trap and bomb).
This kind of fishing activity in the area will cause the instinction of small
fishes and reefs biota (zooxanthellae) which can threaten the ecosystem and
species preservation. Further, without improving effort, the valuable comodities
will lose as well as economic growth that will be going down. This condition has
triggered a sustainable reef ecosystem based management effort.
To know the change of coral reefs ecosystem condition in Liwutongkidi
Island and surroundings, a research or study related to potency, changing and
usage of coral reefs shall be conducted, to determine the actual reefs condition.
Liwutongkidi Island coastal area has huge ocean resources if it is managed
integratedly, considering the relation among resource components in a model, to
keep the preservation of coastal resources.
Considering coral reefs condition nowadays and the important value of reefs
ecology as well as economy and related ecosystem for human life, a Coral Reefs
Ecosystem Based Ecology-Economy Analysis of Fisheries Management in
Liwutongkidi Island of Buton Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province.
1.2. Issue Formulation
Community living in the coastal area like fishermen and farmers depend on
coastal resources. Fragile coastal resources and environment condition will affect
The coral reefs damage is caused by human activities, like fishing method
using explossive material and poison (potassium and cyanide), shown by physical
damage coral reefs spots. According to Bappeda 2005, Kecamatan Siompu at
coordinate 050 40’23’’ SL, 1220 33’57’’ EL has 50- 75% of reefs coverage and
Kecamatan Kadatua at coordinate 050 31’21’’ SL, 1220 28’14’’ EL has 25-35%
of reefs coverage. Reefs mining for construction and road material also cause the
ecosystem damage. Coastal resources issues relate to lack of community
knowledge about the importance of coral reefs ecosystem for supporting their life.
So far, the coastal resources usage by community has been orientated to instant
utilization without considering its sustainability.
To implement the preservation of coastal and marine resources in increasing
and maintaining fisheries production, study model is needed using coral reefs
based ecology economy approach by answering basic questions as follow :
1. How is the ecologic characteristic, especially coral reefs and reef fishes
condition
2. How is the optimal utilization of reef fisheries sustainably
3. How is the ecosystem based reef fisheries management
1.3 Research Objectives and Benefits
The research objectives are :
1. To identify composition charactersitic of bottom surface, fish community
composition and its co-relation with the habitat at coral reefs ecosystem in
conservation area of Liwutongkidi Island
2. To estimate economy value of coral reefs ecosystem in conservation area of
Liwutongkidi Island
3. To formulate management concept of coral reefs ecosystem based on
ecology-economy model in conservation area of Liwutongkidi Island
The research benefits are :
1. To give basic information for coral reefs ecosystem authority in conservation
area of Liwutongkidi Island.
2. As guideline in integrated and sustainable planning, policy, utilization and
1.4. Work Frame
Liwutongkidi Island conservation area as a rich biotic resources area and as
nursery ground and spawning ground, is well managed. On the other hand, its
over utilization is feared to affect the natural resources and its environment. This
concerns have made us to do something to protect this area through Sea
Conservation Area. Ecology-economy management is very important to
understand how far the utilization of Sea Conservation Area gives the direct
benefits as well as indirect benefits, economically benefits as well as
non-economically benefits for coastal community.
Without good planning, the resources conservation will be threatened and
this will affect the marine resources, utilized by humans. The exploration of
resource potency has absolutely to be conducted sustainably.
Sustainable coral reefs management is very important to conduct. The
existence of productive coral reefs ecosystem shall support local fishermen’s life.
When coral reefs ecosystem could be functioned optimally, fisheries production
will increase as well social economy activities indirectly.
Not only is fisheries purely economy activity, but it has been a way of living
for most of small scale fishermen in tropical region. Therefore, social-ecology
approach which acommodates ecology and economy aspects in a system would be
appropriate to be considered for future fisheries resources management.
Coastal management is a process of an effort to control human activities in
using natural resources of coastal region, to be able to produce as maximum
benefit as possible for community, at present time as well as for future time.
Therefore, to determine good management system, we need to understand the
characteristic of dynamic coral reefs ecosystem and unique environment
condition. The perspective similarity about objectives, utilization pattern and coral
reefs ecosystem management shall be a good place to reach benefits for
community.
Further more, the quality of coral reefs ecosystem and social economy
condition of local community towards some criteria’s of reef fisheries ecosystem
Coral reefs ecosystem is one of typical tropical coastal area, that has
important functions ecologically as well as economically. The function is to
provide nutrients for water biota, physical shelter, spawning ground, playing
ground and nursery ground. Besides ecology function, coral reefs also produces
various products with high economy value, like reef fishes, reef crustaceans,
algae, sea cucumber, etc.
Ecology approach of coral reefs ecosystem is one of the important factors to
identify the changes happened in fish community structure, includes coral
covering percentage, diversity, homogeneity and domination of reef fishes as well
as to identify the co-relation between the fish and the reef. To identify the coral
reefs condition, LIT (Line Intercept Transect) method is used, with transect as
long as 70 meter, as deep as 3-10 meter along the coastal line.
Economy approach from reef fisheries economy aspect is determined by
direct use value and indirect use value. Direct use value are products that can be
utilized directly, for example consuming fish and ornamental fish, while indirect
use value is difficult to identify because the value changes from time to time, for
example reef ecosystem as natural breakwater and habitat for various reef fishes.
Besides that, coral reefs provide direct and indirect utilization for community,
especially coastal community around Liwutongkidi Island. The most dominant
and valuable utilization is the products coming from marine fisheries resources
supported by reefs ecosystem.
Ecology and economy approach is used as based in determining policy
approach pattern by studying using ecology-economy approach to produce an
integrated and sustainable coral reef based management. An integrated coastal
region management is an interactive and evolutionary process to implement the
coastal region development optimally and sustainably.
In preparing ecology-economy management in utilizing the reef fisheries in
coastal region of Liwutongkidi Island, we need to prepare a model of system
dinamics, using comprehensive Stella software 9.02 version to describe the
relation of ecology-economy utilization of coral reefs ecosystem in coastal region
of Liwutongkidi Island, to identify the problem root which bases the decreasing
determine proper management scenario to reduce the pressure of exploration
activities towards coral reefs ecosystem in the coastal region of Liwutongkidi
Island. The final aim of sustainably fisheries management is not only to pursue
the short term of economic growth, but more to guarantee economic growth which
can be used fairly and proportionally by all stakeholders, and to maintain the
carrying capacity and coastal quality, for the development to be conducted in
[image:33.612.105.492.244.676.2]harmony. The Figure 1 below shows the work frame of this study.
Figure 1. Study flowchart using ecology-economy approach
Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management Model
Marine Conservation Area of Liwutongkidi Island
Bottom substrate coverage percentage
Mortality Index Diversity
Homogeneity and Domination
Identification of Reef Fisheries Economy Aspect Identification of Coral Reefs
Community Structure Aspect
Reefs fisheries system
Reefs fisheries management and survey pattern
Economic value of reefs fisheries resources
Analisys Ecology-Economy of Reefs Fisheries
Sustained Reefs Fisheries Coral Reefs
2. STUDY LITERATURE
2.1. Coral Reef
Coral reef were tropical unique ecosystem. Even it could be found in almost
all around the world waters, they only could breed in tropical region. Reef was
formed from massive sediments mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which were
produced from coral organism, calcareous algae and other calcium carbonate
produced organisms.
Coral reef were very productive ecosystem with marine life diversity such
as: (1) invertebrate diversity: mainly stony coral, crustacea diversity, snails or slug
and shells also echinoderms like sea urchins, sea anemones, sea cucumbers,
starfish and sea lily; (2) fish diversity: mainly 50 – 70% opportunistic carnivore
fish, 15% herbivore fish and omnivore as a rest; (3) reptile like sea snake and sea
turtle; (4) algae and seaweed like coraline algae, calcareous green algae and
seagrass (Bengen 2001).
Coral reef were organism society which live in the bottom of waters and
formed as calcareous rocks (CaCO3) and it strong enough to block the seawave.
Evenwhile, lived dominants organism in the coral were calcareous frame coral
animals, and algae which have calcareous algae. Based on above coral reef, it
could be defined between coral animals or reef coral as organism individual or a
component from a society and coral reef as an ecosystem (Sorokin 1993).
Coral reef as a bottom sea ecosystem with reef coral as primary inhabitant
had a remarkable architecture and it was formed by thousands of tiny species
called polip. In a simple way, coral consisted from only one polip in a body near
to a tube with a mouth on the upper body and it was surrounded by tentacles. But,
mostly on species, one coral polip individual will breed to many individuals called
colony (Sorokin 1993).
Based on their capability in producing the calcareous, the coral could be
defined as two major group which were hermatipical coral and ahermatipical
coral. Hermatipical coral was coral with its ability in forming a coral building and
Ahermatipical coral didn’t produced the reef and its spread were wide across the
globe. A distinct difference between this two kinds of coral were in hermatipical
coral tissue consisted of symbiosed plants cell (live together) called zooxanthellae,
a kind of unisular algae (Dinoflagellata unisular), like Gymnodinium
microadriatum, lied on coral animal polip tissues and conduct a photosynthesis.
This activity had a side affects which was calcium carbonate sediment with
its unique structure and building forms. At the end, this characteristic would be
used to determined coral animal type and species. Hermatipical coral had a unique
nature as they were a combination between animal and plant nature then their
growth were always positive phototeopic nature. This kind of coral naturally lived
in shallow seashore waters with sun light penetration touched the bottom of the
waters.
In coral reef forming process, then Scleractina was the most important
ingredients on reef-building corals. Scleractina (or stone coral) was one of
Anthozoa Class, that is Coelenterata Fylum with only one polyp stadium. These
Anthozoa Class consisted of two sub-Class, Hexacorallia (Zoantharia) and
Octocorallia. Based on Sumich (1992) and Burke et al (2002), coral species
conducted symbiosis mostly with symbiotical algae, using living zooxanthellae in
its tissue. In symbiosis, zooxanthellae produced oxygen and organical tissue
through photosynthesize that will be used by the coral, then the coral itself will
produce in-organical components in a form of nitrate, phosphate and carbon
dioxide for the life of zooxanthellae.
Ray of the sun hold an important rule for coral reef forming process
(Nybakken 1986). Ray of the sun will be used for symbiotical algae
photosynthesize process (zooxanthellae). Ray penetration depth would affect
hermapitical coral growth depth. Oxygen needs for plant respiration on a coral
reef could be overcome with the presence of symbiotical algae called
zooxanthellae. These additional oxygen came from photosynthesize process, in
which these kind of process could only be carried out when there was ray of sun.
Penetrated light intensity and quality through the ocean were important matters for
zooxanthellae photosynthesize process which will determine the vertically stone
Salinity had a big affect on coral reef productivity. Coral reef will live well
on 32 – 35 %o salinity, but sometimes there also another coral reef could tolerated
the salinity up to 42 %o (Nybakken 1993). But Nontji (1987) declared that coral
organism tolerant against salinity around 27–40 %o.
Vertically coral reef growth was determined by air. Lots of coral will died
caused by open air exposure too long, then it determined that vertically growth
will only live not more then low tide. Long dried experience caused by high
low-tide will effect on dead coral ((Nybakken 1986). Sea water or current wave was
needed for the life of coral reef, food and oxygen needs will hinder the coral from
other inundated or polluted substances. On morning, oxygen was captured from
photosynthesize results, but on evening, a strong current wave should be prepared
in supplying adequate oxygen for other fish around coral reef.
Then, substrate condition had an important rule for coral growth. Hard and
clean substrate were needed as planula larve inherent, as a chance for a new
colony.
2.2. Reef fish
Lots of fish species embrace their preferences on certain habitat. Referred
to Robertson (1996), reef fish community (abundance and structures) were
influenced by competition amongst those species interaction.
Referred to Choat and Bellwood (1991), reef fish interaction with coral
reef could be named in three shapes, which are:
1. Direct interaction as a shelter/save place from juvenile fish predator
2. Interaction in feeding activity for bottom habitat refill biota consumed fish,
covered the interrelationship between reef fish and living biota on coral and
algae.
3. Indirect interaction between coral reef structures and hydrology condition and
also sedimentation with feed plankton fish pattern and carnivore.
Reef fish existence around coral reef depend on its coral reef condition.
High covered percentage of living reef will impact the reef fish abundance. On the
contrary, when covered percentage was bad, it will impact the fish worst less reef
etal 1997) divided the groups based on its role, reef fish divided on three groups,
which are:
1. Targeting Fish. Fish as a target for capture or it has its famous name as
important economical fish or consumed fish, like Serranidae, Lutjanidae,
Kyphosidae, Lethrinidae, Acanthuridae, Mulidae, Siganidae Labridae
(Chelinus, Himigymnus, choerodon) and Haemulidae.
2. Indicator Fish. As determined fish for coral reef, caused this fish has its close
relationship with coral reef fertility which are fish from Chaetodontidae
(kepe-kepe) family.
3. Other Fish (Major Family). This fish generally has its abundant numbers and
use as marine water ornamental fish (Pomacentridae, Caesionidae, Scaridae,
Pomacanthidae, Labridae, Apogonidae, etc)
Based on active period on feeding, then reef fish could be divided into:
1. Nocturnal Fish (night active), for example, fish from Holocentridae (Swanggi)
family, Apogoninade (Beseng) family, Hamulidae, Priacanthidae (Bigeyes)
family, Muraenidae (Eels), Seranidae (Jewfish) family and several others from
Mullidae (Goat fishes) family, then etc.
2. Diurnal fish (daylight active), for example fish on Labraidae (wrasses) family,
Chaetodontidae (Butterfly fishes), Pomacentridae (Damsel fishes), Scaridae
(Parrot fishes), Acanthuridae (Surgeon fishes), Bleniidae (Blennies), Balistidae
(Trigger fishes), Pomaccanthidae (Angel fishes), Monacanthidae,
Ostracionthidae (Box fishes), Etraodontidae, Canthigasteridae family and
several others from Mullidae (Goat fishes) family.
3. Crepuscular fish (between bight and daylight active) for example for fish on
Sphyraenidae (Baracudas), Serranidae (Groupers), Carangidae (Jacks),
Scorpaenidae (Lion fishes), Synodontidae (Lizard fishes), Carcharhinidae,
Lamnidae, Spyrnidae (Sharks) family and several others from Muraenidae.
Referred to Bappeda (2005), reef fish type and composition on average coral
reef area in Liwutongkidi Island waters from each station was vary between 8 –
49 type with individual numbers 128 -1972 each for about three meters depth and
for ten meters depth, type numbers was vary between 10 – 65 types with
was around 10 – 25 fish types and 29 – 52 types with individual numbers on each
types around 259 – 883 each and 399 – 1076 each.
Revealed biota type on coral reef was very vary, and most potentially to
support marine eco-tourism development. Several revealed biota types mostly
such as; crustace (lobster and crabs), molusca, (shells, teripang), and
echinodermata (pig feathers). Revealed reef fish types mostly such as;
Pterocaesio digrama (617 individuals), Abodefduf vaigiensis (200 individuals),
Pterocaesio tesselata (148 individuals), Chroronis ambonensis (101 inviduals),
Apogon nigrofasciatus (96 individuals), Centropige ravissimus (92 individuals),
Chaetodon klenii (92 individuals), Apogon deoderleinii (76 individuals),
Centropige nox (63 individuals), and Apogon novemfasciatus (48 individuals)
(Bappeda 2005).
2.3. Coral Reef Type
Referred to Nyabakken (1986), coral reef could be classified into three
general structural type which are:
1. Fringing reef/shore reef
2. Barrier reef
3. Atol
Among these three structures, commonly found coral reefs in Indonesian
waters were the fringing reef (Suharsono 1998). For a brief explanation on those
three structures was as the following:
1. Fringing reef has grown along the coast and reached less then 40 m depth.
This coral reef has grown upwards or towards the sea. The best growth usually
lied on fairly current section of the sea. While for a less good growth or even
dead, when they lived between the coast and the outer edge of reefs, cause by
frequent droughts and lots of sediment flow from the land.
2. Barrier reef usually lied on various distances from the coast and separated
from the coast by a far deep seabed for coral growth (40-70 m). It generally
lied extend along the coast and they went round and round and act as a barrier
for immigrants who come from the outside. For example, the great barrier
3. Atoll that encircle a Goba (laggon). Goba depth inside the atolls was about 45
m and they never reached up from 100 m depth such as coral reef barrier. For
instance, atolls in the island of Taka Bone Rate in South Sulawesi
2.4. Threats on Coral Reef
Many marine resources utilization efforts have been conducted, but there
were still many deviated utilization efforts from the applicable provisions
occurred. Marine resources utilization deviation would emerge some problems on
existing natural resources preservation. Many occurred problems in coastal waters
caused by various human activities, including utilization of coral reef ecosystems
as food source, building materials source, ornamental fish trade commodity which
sometime destroyed the ecosystem itself caused by the use of explosives, cyanide
and cyanide tablets in capturing them.
Coastal resource management issues, namely on coral reef ecosystems
caused by (1) lack of public awareness about the value of these coastal resources
that tend to less environmentally friendly exploitation (2) marine protection and
preservation can only be effectively implemented if supported by an adequate
legal frameworks, (3) too many involved parties in coastal resources management,
(4) numbers and diversity of community interests in coastal areas were high, (5)
typical coral deduction for sold as a decoration on the aquarium, (6) greed
2.5. Conservation Areas
Conservation in the sense of term means the sustainable use of natural
resources. Conservation can also be viewed in terms of economic and ecological
conservation as where the economy is trying to allocate resources for the present,
while in terms of ecology, conservation means the allocation of natural resources
for present and future.
Conservation was not the only way in maintaining the resources and
sustaining the presence of germplasm, but marine conservation areas can also play
an important role in the management of fisheries and tourism. There would be
available also for any effort in preparing infrastructure for utilization
Conservation area requires a process of planning and management stages in
a conservation area management framework. A natural resource management
must be referring to conservation strategies, which are:
1. Protect against life support system, by ensuring ecological processes
maintenance for the survival life of biota and ecosystems
2. Preserving diversity of germplasm resources which means must guarantee the
preservation of germplasm/genetic resources and ecosystems for the benefit
of mankind
3. Preservation in the utilization both types and ecosystem by controlling the
means of utilization in expectation they would be conducted in an optimal
and sustainable way.
In an effort of future marine resources rescue and conservation, we should
prepare a management system tailored with the needs and national interests by
regarding to the categories which has been introduced by the IUCN (International
Union for Nature and Natural Resources Conservation). Then, Salm and Clark
(2000) suggested six categories on conservation areas management which can be
developed. Those categories are
1. Category I is the Nature Reserve Area which was defined for the management
of wildlife (Category Ib) while the Nature Preserve for the benefit of science
included into a Category Ia.
2. Category II is a National Park which was defined as a protected area mainly
managed for ecosystem protection or recreation
3. Category III was Natural Monument, which was defined as a protected area
mainly managed for protecting areas with special natural conditions
4. Category IV was Habitat Management Area, which was defined as a
particular type as a protected area mainly managed for ecosystem protection
or recreation
5. Category V was Protection of Terrestrial and Aquatic Landscapes, which was
defined as the management of protected areas mainly for conservation and
tourism.
6. Category VI was Resource Protected Areas Management which was mainly
Marine conservation zone was a guarded and protected areas for its
conserve life. This region is expressly prohibited for exploitation and exploration
as well as a buffer zone. Zone management in the conservation area is based on
the extent of the various areas of resource utilization.
Marine conservation areas are often regarded as an area designated for
biodiversity conservation. However, marine protected areas can also play an
important role in the management of fisheries and tourism
Activities within each zone is determined by the purpose of conservation
area as defined in management plan (Bengen 2001). In general, zones in a
conservation area can be grouped into 3 (three) zone, which are:
1. Core zone was a zone that has a high conservation value, also highly
vulnerable to disruption or change and can only tolerate a small scale of
human activity. This zone should be managed with a high level of protection,
and no exploitation activities allowed.
2. Buffer zone is an open zone, but controlled by restricted permitted form of
utilization. Buffer protection zones around conservation areas intended to
maintain the utilization of a variety of activities that can interfere, and protect
conservation areas from external influences
3. Utilization Zone is a zone that still has some conservation value, but can
tolerate various types of utilization by humans, and worthy enough for
permitted variety activities of exploitation in a marine and coastal
conservation area.
Identification and selection of potential sites for protected areas in coastal
and marine demanding the application of the criteria. The application of these
criteria are very helpful and identifying and objectively selecting protection sites.
2.6. Coral Reef Utilization
Extensive coral reefs in Indonesia is estimated around 50,000 km and has
type biodiversity and highly primary productivity. But behind this potency, human
activities in the name of utilization of natural resource potential in coastal areas,
either directly or indirectly, often damaging coral reefs. According to Suprihayono
(1) Coral reef fisheries
Fisheries problem was part of the reef ecosystem, and even reef diversity
can reflect the diversity of fish species. Then, fisheries problem couldn’t be
ignored as separated part of coral reef ecosystem. With recent increased
population numbers affected to increased fishing activity on coral reef ecosystems
amount. If this activities continued intensively, then this condition would forced
the occurrence of fish stocks decline in coral reef ecosystems. It would took the
ecosystem to recovered with a long period of time.
Effective management should be based on biological knowledge of the
target species, so that the proper fishing techniques can be determined.
Management of coral reefs was tended to much on coral taking or human
activities such as coral or reef fish bombing, and the other can indirectly damage
the reefs.
(2). Coral fish capture
Fisheries resources can be fish resources, environmental resources and
man-made resources used to exploit fish resources. Utilization of fish resources by
humans is closely linked to environmental conditions where the fish live. The
existence of interactions between fishery resources, aquatic and human
environment as a user, then needed a third for management of these interactions in
order to make this interaction run in a balanced manner within an ecosystem
(Nikijuluw 2002). This has mean, fish resources management was setting up the
fish resources utilization, environmental management and human management as
a user. In deep, Murdiyanto (2004) stated that in a coastal fisheries resource
management, managers must be equipped with adequate knowledge and facilities.
Availability of accurate data and information, reliable human resources, funding,
and public awareness and involvement were the things needed to made fisheries
resources management managed properly.
Humans in fulfilling their needs on its economic needs would do whatever
they do. Fishermen in order to meet the market demand for ornamental marine
fish will certainly try as hard as they could to fulfill the request. But sometimes,
marine ornamental fish, they done it with every kind of way (by using special
nets) even by damaging coral reefs (using anesthetic potassium cyanide).
2.7. Coral Reef Economical Value
On recent coral reefs threats, a pressing issue that needs to be done is to
value its economic valuation of coral reefs function both as supplier of goods or
services. Economical assessment could be described or derived from fishery value
or value as a protective beach that has market value. Where the value can be
derived based on the demand, supply, price and cost (Spurgeon 1992)
Barton (1994) explains that the economic value of coral reef ecosystems is
the value of all instruments available to them including a source of food and
ecological services. The value of all the instruments found on coral reef
ecosystems can be quantified by the total economic valuation methods (Total
Economic Valuation /TEV). Based on neoclassical economic theory such as
consumer surplus and willingness to pay can be approximated value of coral reef
ecosystems with sense of no market value (non-market value).
According to Fauzi (2004) Economic valuation can be defined as an attempt
to provide a quantitative value to goods and services produced by natural
resources and the environment both on market value or non-market value.
Economic assessment was a economic tool using a specific valuation technique to
estimate the monetary value of goods and services provided by a natural resource.
Economic valuation purpose, among others, used to demonstrate the linkages
between natural resource conservation and economic development, then economic
valuation could be an important tools in increasing public awareness and
appreciation of the environment itself.
Described by Fauzi (2004) that there were three characteristics owned by its
resources that is
1. Non-renewable resources, can not be renewed when they are extinct. If as an
asset can not be preserved, then they trend to extinct.
2. Eexistence of uncertainties, such as coral reefs damaged or missing. There
should be a potential costs must be purchased if these natural resources tend to
3. Its unique behavior, if the resource started to scarce, then the value will be
greater because of economic considerations motivated to preserve it.
Assessment of resource economics is a form of comprehensive assessment.
In this case, it was not just the market value of goods but also the value of
services (ecological values) which were generated by natural resources are often
not quantified in comprehensive calculation of natural resource.
According to Constanza and Folke (1997) in Adrianto (2006) goals of
economic valuation is to ensure the achievement of individual welfare
maximization objectives relating to ecological sustainability and distributive
justice. Furthermore, Constanza (2001) in Adrianto (2005) states that to achieve
the three objectives above, the need for ecosystem valuation is based on three
main objectives there were efficiency, equity, and sustainability
According to Charles (1993) sustainable fisheries development should adopt
the concept of fisheries development with some aspects in it which are
1. Ecological sustainability. In ecological sustainable management, biomass or
stock should be noted in case they would not passed the carrying capacity and
increase the capacity and quality of ecosystems would be a major concern
2. Socioeconomic sustainability was fisheries development should pay attention
to sustainability of the population welfare and poverty reduction. In other
words, to maintain or achieve a higher welfare
3. Community sustainability was a sustainability framework that concerns on
communities welfare, so when it concern on community then they should be
the point of view of sustainable fisheries development
4. Institutional sustainability. Institutional sustainability involves a good
financial and administrative aspects maintenance.
2.8. Coral Reef Function and Value
World strategy of the conservation of coral reefs was identified as one of the
major components that are essential as variety of life support which was needed in
food production, health and various aspects of human life and also in sustainable
development. Some of the value of the function of coral reefs, among others
1. Ecological value, coral reefs keep the balance of marine life reciprocal
relationship between marine life and abiotic factors
2. Economic value, these resources can be developed as a commodity that has a
high economic value
3. Aesthetic value, coral reefs form a beautiful panorama in deep ocean that can
be used as a marine tourism
4. Biological value, i.e. as a regulator of oxygen-producing waters and the
balance of aquatic ecosystems
5. Educational value, i.e. as education and research objects.
Beside that, coral reef has several other important function such as:
1. As fish resources habitat, in this matter, it also known as nursery ground,
nesting, feeding place and protection from other marine life biom.
2. As nature seed source for mariculture
3. As feed source and active substance raw materials use full for medical and
pharmacy world
4. As coastal protection from sea wave then made the coast save from abrasion
and degradation.
2.9. Ecosystem Approach for Fisheries Management
Integrated coastal zone management should be implemented as we aware
that many activities occurred on coastal area, so it needs to formulated a concept
of spatial plan with wide selection of activities which were matched from one to
another. In this context the integration of coastal zone management contains 5
dimensions in the Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management (ICOM), namely
(1) integration between sectors, (2) spatial coherence, (3) integration of
knowledge-based management, (4) institutional integration, and (5) international
integration. Sectoral integration in coastal area needs sectoral task coordination,
authority and responsibility amongst sectors or agencies (horizontal integration);
and any government levels started from village level, sub district, district,
provincial to central government (vertical integration). While science point of
view integration requires that coastal areas management should be conducted on
involves fields of economics, ecology, engineering, sociology, law, and other
relevant parties. It’s reasonable to be conducted, as we aware that coastal area
basically consists of complexly and dynamically intertwined social and natural
systems.
In management process, there should be conducted an identification and
analysis on existed or future management or utilization issues, then develop and
implement policies and action programs to address a growing issue. of integrated
and sustainable coastal area management process at least have four major stages:
(1) structuring and planning, (2) formulation, (3) implementation, and (4)
evaluation (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998). At the planning stage, a data collection
and analysis was conducted to identify constraints and problems, potential and
development opportunities and challenges. Based on this, then management or
utilization goals and targets was set up and policies and strategies and
implementation structure selection to achieve those goals.
Development as a change process to improve human life wouldn’t be
separated from the activity of natural resources utilization in coastal and marine
areas can cause changes in marine and coastal ecosystems itself. These changes
will certainly affect the quality of the environment. When we found a higher
development pace in coastal and marine areas, there would be a higher level of its
natural resources utilization. Non-considerable ecological principles utilization
could reduced environment quality and continue to coastal ecosystems damage.
(Dahuri et al. 1996). Therefore, in sustainable development planning, it should
considered applied ecological principles to reduce the negative consequences for
development sustainability.
2.10. Ecosystem-based Management
should attempted in order to maintain and support its sustainable development and be a source of income for the community
For attempt to achieve sustainable and integrated coastal resources management, then there should be formulated a strategic plan, which integrated every interests in proportionality amongst ecological dimension, social, inter-sectoral, science and stakeholders. In order to make this natural resources potency could be utilized in sustainable way, and then it should be needed an environmental considered utilization efforts in mean that it gained an economical optimum benefit but it still considered its carrying capacity and environment sustainability. In term of management, it wouldn’t be just utilized but also maintained and preserved.
Ecosystem-based management in a certain region should be legallized in a
major law which could protect the environment, and sustaining ecosystem for its
lasting biodiversity and could be sustainably utilized
Based on fisheries ecosystem management which was developed by
UNEP (2006) with management approach in Ecosystem Based Management
(EBM), for its development should considered relevant matters with ecological,
social and economical condition, which are:
1. Integration on ecological condition, socio-economical and management goals
should involved community as an important component in ecosystem
2. Management determination should considered political and ecological
condition.
3. Adaptive management should be run down to face uncertainty and changes
condition as a result of natural process and social system.
4. Determine to comprehend a good process on how ecosystem would responded
against environmental disturbances.
5. Sustainability of marine and coastal ecosystem management.
Therefore, in order to accomplished sustainable utilization to fulfill
human needs against natural resources and environmental services on marine and
coastal region, then an integrated ecosystem-based natural resources management
with focused on community would be needed by considering on two policy
aspects, economical and ecological aspects. It also known as integrated
community-based coastal resources management (Zamani and Darmawan 2000).
efforts has been also needed and particularly for existed population around
coastal area about the importance of natural resources in supporting recent life
and future generation.
2.11. Ecosystem-based Marine and Coastal Management Stages
Coastal region was complex and uniquely characteristic region. This
complexity was showed by various user and entity of region manager with owned
interest and point of view against resources utilization and management in coastal
region.
Districts in Indonesia each of them owned its coastal region physical
characteristic. Beside, each districts owned their point of view in managing
coastal region. Its differences consequences has resulted a different institutional
instruments and policy from one coastal region to another. Coastal regional
management model for Indonesian districts, primary caused by the issuance of
Law No. 22 Year 1999, never been formally issued yet by national government or
local.
As its consequences of decentralization policy issued by Law No. 22 Year
1999, coastal region management was district authority. District coastal region
management model was prepared based on coastal region ecosystem characteristic
and the derived to existed institutional instruments in district government. In
model preparation, it has been applied coastal management principles as a unique
ecosystem. Developing a model in coastal region required several stages to
accomplish a trusted result.
Fauzi and Anna (2008) stated that to develop an model in coastal region
needs several stages as follows:
1. Issues identification was developed from questions series, and stand as an
important stage to develop a model.
2. Assumptions frame working, this stage was needed to simplify a model into
complex reality. That is why, every simplifying efforts need assumption, then
model scope of work were inside the issues corridor which would be solved its
3. Developing construction from model itself could be set up through flow chart
or mathematical equations. Model construction could be used with software
computer or analytically effort.
4. Determine a precise analysis. In this stage,
