A ‘Skripsi’ Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers Training in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata 1 (Bachelor
of Arts) in English Education Department
BY:
MUHAMAD RIDHO PRATAMA NIM: 107014000699
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS TRAINING STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA
ii
ABSTRACT
Pratama, Ridho. 2011. Error Analysis on the Second Grade Students of Senior High School at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat
Advisor : Dr. Alek, M.Pd.
Key Words : Errors Analysis on students’ Error, Type Two of Conditional Sentences, SMA Dua Mei Ciputat
Skripsi entitled “ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT.” The research is aimed at obtaining clear information about the students’ errors and knowing the reason why the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. The population of the research is 30 students of SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. Data were collected through test and interview. The collected data was analyzed by using descriptive analysis by describing students’ errors and quantitative analysis by the formula of percentage. The findings of the research are as follows: (1) Based on the explanations on research findings, so the errors made by the students consisting of word choice with 55.8%, verb tense with 39.8%, omit a word with 1.94%, add a word with 0.97%, meaning not clear with 0.97%, and word form with the percentage 0.48%. (2) The reason why the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences caused by inter-lingual transfer in which the system, rules, and patterns of the students’ native
language distract their target language with the percentage 46.61%. Next, the students make the errors caused by context of learning in which either the teachers, textbooks, or the patterns are improperly contextualized with the percentage 38.83%. There are 14.07% of the students make the errors caused by
iii
ABSTRAK
Pratama, Ridho. 2011. Error Analysis on the Second Grade Students of Senior High School at SMA Dua mei Ciputat
Advisor : Dr. Alek, M.Pd.
Key Words : Errors Analysis on students’ Error, Type Two of Conditional Sentences, SMA Dua Mei Ciputat
Skripsi yang berjudul “ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GRADE
STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT” dimaksudkan
untuk mendapatkan informasi yang jelas tentang kesalahan siswa dan untuk mengetahui alasan mengapa siswa melakukan kesalahan dalam menggunakan tipe dua conditional sentences di SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. Populasi penelitian adalah 30 siswa SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. Data dikumpulkan melalui tes dan wawancara. Data yang dikumpulkan dianalisa menggunakan analisa deskriptif dengan menggambarkan kesalahan siswa dan analisa kuantitatif dengan rumus persentase. Hasil penelitian adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Kesalahan-kesalahan yang banyak dibuat oleh siswa terdiri dari: word choice dengan persentase 55.8%, verb tense
dengan 39.8%, omit a word dengan 1.94%, add a word dengan 0.97%, meaning not clear dengan 0.97%, dan word form dengan persentase 0.48%. (2) Alasan mengapa siswa melakukan kesalahan dalam menggunakan tipe dua conditional sentences disebabkan karena inter-lingual transfer dimana system, aturan, dan pola bahasa asli siswa mengganggu bahasa yang sedang siswa pelajari dengan persentase 46.61%. Selanjutnya, siswa membuat kesalahan karena context of learning yang mana guru-guru, buku teks, atau pola-pola tidak kontekstual dengan persentase 38.83%. Ada 14.07% siswa yang membuat kesalahan disebabkan oleh
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Lord of the world, who has blessed the writer in completing this ‘skripsi’. Peace
and Blessing be upon the Prophet Muhammad SAW, his family, his companion,
and his followers.
In this opportunity, the writer would like to express his greatest honor to
his beloved family; his parents, Wasirun, BA. and Anna Hamimi, BA. and his sister; Rahmatia Andaruni, who always give their support and moral encouragement in finishing his study. Also, he would like to address his greatest
thanks to his advisor Dr. Alek, M.Pd for his time, guidance, valuable helps,
correction and suggestion during completing this ‘skripsi’.
The writer realizes that if there were no support and motivation from
people around him, he could not finish this ‘skripsi’. Therefore, he would like to
give his deepest appreciation to:
1. All lecturers in English Education Department who always give their
motivation and valuable knowledge and also unforgettable experience
during her study at State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.
2. Drs. Syauki, M. Pd; the chairman of English Education Department and
Neneng Sunengsih, S. Pd; the secretary of English education Department.
3. Prof. Dede Rosyada, M. A; the Dean of faculty of Tarbiyah’ and Teachers’
Training of State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.
4. Yayat Ruhiat, S. Pd. The Headmaster of SMA Dua Mei Ciputat who has
allowed the writer to observe there. Also, the second grade students of
class XI Social and class XI Science, who helped the writer by doing the
test given. If there were no their help, this ‘skripsi’ would not be
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anyone who read his ‘skripsi.
Jakarta,………
vi
ABSTRACT ... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vi
LIST OF TABLES ... ix
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...1
A. The Background of the Research ...1
B. The Limitation and Scope of the Problems ...4
C. The Formulation of the Problems ...4
D. The Objectives of the Research ...4
E. The Significances of the Research ...5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...6
A. Errors Analysis ...6
1. The Differences between Errors and Mistakes ...6
2. The Causes of Errors ...7
3. The Classification of Errors ...10
4. The Procedures of Errors Analysis ...11
B. Grammar ...12
1. The Definition of Grammar ...13
vii
D. Conditional Sentences ...16
1. The Definition of Conditional Sentences ...16
2. The Types of Conditional Sentences ...18
3. The Functions of Conditional Sentences ...25
4. The Usages of Conditional Sentences ...26
E. Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...27
1. The Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...27
2. The Function of Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...31
3. The Usages of Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...31
4. The Difficulties in Using Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...34
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...36
A. The Purpose of the Research ...36
B. The Time and Place of the Research ...36
C. The Population of the Research ...36
D. The Method of the Research ...37
E. The Instrument of the Research ...37
F. The Technique of Data Collecting ...38
G. The Techniques of Data Analysis ...38
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS ...40
A. The Data Description ...40
B. The Data Analysis ...77
viii
B. Suggestions ...87 BIBLIOGRAPHY
ix
2. Table 2.2 (The Formula of Type One of Type Two of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with
Main Clause) ... 19
3. Table 2.3 (The Formula of Type One of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause) ... 19
4. Table 2.4 (The Formula of Type Two of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause) ... 22
5. Table 2.5 (The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause) ... 23
6. Table 2.6 (The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause) ... 23
7. Table 2.7 (The Brief Explanation of Usages of Type Two of Conditional Sentences)... 26
8. Table 2.8 (The Brief Explanation of Affirmative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 28
9. Table 2.9 (The Brief Explanation of Short Answer in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 28
10.Table 2.10 (The Brief Explanation of WH-Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 28
11.Table 2.11 (The Brief Explanation of Negative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 29
12.Table 2.12 (The Brief Explanation of Yes/No Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 29
13.Table 2.13 (The Tense Combination of Present Unreal)... 34
14.Table 3.1 (The Tense Area and Each Item) ... 37
15.Table 3.2 (The Average Errors Formula) ... 39
16.Table 4.1 (The Students’ Response Distribution on Each Item of Test in Part I) ... 40
17.Table 4.2 (The Students’ Response Distribution on Each Item of Test in Part II) ... 41
18.Table 4.3 (The Students’ Response Distribution on Each Item of Test in Part II) ... 41
19.Table 4.4 (The 1st Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 42
20.Table 4.5 (The 2nd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 44
21.Table 4.6 (The 3rd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 45
x
27.Table 4.12 (The 9th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 52
28.Table 4.13 (The 10th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 54
29.Table 4.14 (The 11th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 55
30.Table 4.15 (The 12th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 56
31.Table 4.16 (The 13thIdentification of the Students’ Errors) ... 57
32.Table 4.17 (The 14th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 59
33.Table 4.18 (The 15thIdentification of the Students’ Errors) ... 60
34.Table 4.19 (The 16th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 61
35.Table 4.20 (The 17th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 62
36.Table 4.21 (The 18th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 63
37.Table 4.22 (The 19th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 64
38.Table 4.23 (The 20th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 65
39.Table 4.24 (The 21st Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 66
40.Table 4.25 (The 22nd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 67
41.Table 4.26 (The 23rd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 69
42.Table 4.27 (The 24th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 70
43.Table 4.28 (The 25th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 71
44.Table 4.29 (The 26th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 73
45.Table 4.30 (The 27th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 74
46.Table 4.31 (The 28th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 75
47.Table 4.32 (The 29th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 75
48.Table 4.33 (The 30th Identification of the Students’ Errors ) ... 76
49.Table 4.34 (Table of Number of Classification of Errors Explanation) .... 77
50.Table 4.35 (Table of Number of Causes of Errors Explanation) ... 78
51.Table 4.36 (The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences in Part I) ... 79
52.Table 4.37 (The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences in Part II) ... 81
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.The Background of the Research
English is the most common language used throughout the world.
Christopher Brumfit states that “English is an International Languge in that it is
the most widespread medium of international communication, both because of the
number and geographical spread of its speakers, and because of the large number
of non-native spekers who use it for part at least of their international contact”.1
As a foreign language in Indonesia, English has an important position and
clearly needed by many learners to deliver thought and interact in a variety of
situations. Therefore, people realize without mastering the language interaction
and all kinds of activities among the people will breakdown. Because when we
learn a language, we learn to communicate through the language we have learned.
But with mastering English, the student can develop their knowldge; science,
technology, art and relations with other countries.
In Indonesian Schools, English is determined as a compulsory subject in the
national curriculum. It is taught at the beginning from Elementary School up to
the university. As we know, the goal of teaching English in Indonesia is to enable
students to use English as a means of communication. Hence, if the students want
to master English well, they have to master four basic language skills. They
should have a capability of Grammar. Grammar is needed even in conmunication
because it can avoid misunderstanding.
Grammar is one of the language aspects which are taught to every language
learners. It is the basic knowledge and important role in underestanding the
English language. Also, it consists of rules set either in writing some English
sentences, in listening English voices, in reading several passages, and in having
English conversation.
1
Christopher Brumfit, English for International Communication, (Oxford: Pergamon Press
According to Paul Robert, he states that Grammar is a body of
generalization about how people says thing in order to make generalization, we
must agree on the meaning of terms for the things we wish to talk about. Grammar
accuracy is only part of communication to convey a message, where grammar is
merely a tool.2
By learning grammar, we can communicate our message clearly and learn
about the rules to construct the good sentences. Then, it is expected that we can
share the information and be confident to express the idea when we have a
communication with other people. If we are good in saying the words, other
person who listen to us will understand about the things that we want to share.
Especially, for the students from non-English background, who learn
English encounter the same problems in learning conditional sentences. They may
understand the syntactic changes of each type, but they may have difficultiers in
grasping the semantic of all types. Conditional sentence of type one may be easier
to understand since it has same meaning in Indonesian, but both type two and
three of conditional sentencesmay cause problems since according to the students,
these types do not exist in Indonesian language.
The students of Indonesia do not realize that unlike type one of conditional
sentences, both type two and three can not be translated as jika, but seandainya.
As in If I had wings I would fly to the moon, which should be translated as
seandainya (not jika) saya punya sayap, saya akan terbang ke bulan. Students’ on
awareness of the differences in the meaning of the conditional sentences that can
be seen through the way they translate the conditional sentences might be seen
through the way they translate the conditional sentences.
There are two clauses in conditional sentences, they are subordinate clause
and main clause; therefore, they are syntactically more complex than many other
structures. Furthermore, the students must have mastered the system of English
tense-aspect as good as the modal auxiliaries and negation.3 It might be not easy
2
Paul Robert, Understanding Grammar, (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1954), p. 123.
3
Marianne Celce Murcia and Diane Larsen Freeman’s, The Grammar Book, 2nd Edition.,
for most students to share their expressions by using type two of conditional
sentences because it is harder to write sentences in English language rather than to
do it in Indonesian language since English language distinguishes a lot from their
mother tongue due to its grammar, systems, patterns and rules.
From that situation, in the process of making type two of conditional
sentences, the students may do some errors and mistakes. While errors and
mistakes are two different things as defined by some experts; Errors cannot be
self-corrected by the students while mistake can be.4 Hence, errors analysis takes
an important role to identify what kinds of errors that the students do the most in
using type two of conditional sentences, the causes of errors and mistakes happen
in students’ language learning.
Globalization era that demands people to be competitive has constantly
changed the students today become open minded and more critical than their
preceding generations. SMA Dua Mei Ciputat set up type two of conditional
sentences in syllabi to the second grade students.
This fact enhances not only the need to fulfill the writer’s curiosity of how
good the students use type two of conditional sentences, but also the need to know
how well the students whom called critical in their thoughts. Therefore, the writer
would like to do the field research at the place.
Based on the research the writer did at SMA Dua Mei, he found so many
problems faced by the second year students who were able to understand what
kind of modal and tense they had to use in type two of conditional sentences. As a
matter of fact, the students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences may
be caused by the situation and condition that the students often face in classroom
as the teacher delivers the materials; lack of games while the students are getting
bored, no appraisal while the students are very bright in a lesson, lack of creativity
in developing teaching method in classroom in order that the students might be
more attractive and curious with every single thing the teacher says, students’
mother tongue, but there is still a national examination), limited facilities,
4
uncontrolled classroom situation, too many students in one class, low motivation
from the students, no sufficient facilities available, and also none of supporting
environment which help the students develop their ability.
From the explanations above, the writer is interested in analyzing students’
errors in using type two of conditional sentences. The writer would like to carry
out a research under the title ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GRADE
STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI.
B.The Limitation and Scope of the Problems
In this study, the writer focused on analyzing the second grade students’
grammatical errors on using type two of conditional sentences at SMA Dua Mei
Ciputat. To be more focused, the problem is limited on analyzing the students’
grammatical errors on using type two of conditional sentences that are based on
Betty Azar’s grammatical error classification. Here are the classifications:
singular-plural, word form, word choice, verb tense, add word, omit word, word
order, incomplete sentence, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, article, meaning
not clear and run on sentence.5
C.The Formulation of the Problems
Based on the background of the study, the writer formulates her problem as
follows:
1. What are the students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences?
2. Why do the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences?
D.The Objectives of the Reseacrh
In order to guide the analysis in the research, the objectives are to obtain
some clear information about the students’ errors, and to know the reason why the
students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences. In addition, the
5
writer expects that this ‘skripsi’ will be useful for the English teachers in teaching
type two of conditional sentences and for the senior high school students in
second year to anticipate the mastery level that the may face in learning the type
two of conditional sentences.
E.The Significances of the Reseacrh
Theoretically, the research can hopefully be useful for english teachers to
know the students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences and to make them easier to understand using type two of conditional sentences.
Not only that, the students may also know the right formula of type two of
conditional sentences. Besides, the writer is able to recognize some students’
errors in using type two of conditional sentences, and the way out to solve them.
Practically, the research can be a good reference for the teachers who teach
type two of conditional sentences in order to be able to minimize a number of
errors and mistakes the students generally do by the simple way. However, the
students may correctly apply what they have been taught in terms of type two of
conditional sentences. Also, the writer are going to able to make the students
6
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Errors Analysis
W. R. Lee first introduced errors analysis in 1957, and it gained popularity
in the 1970s. Although, the field of errors analysis in Second Language
Acquisition was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues, errors
analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis.1
According to David Crystal, “Error analysis in language teaching and
learning is the study of the unacceptable forms produced by someone in learning a
language, especially foreign language”.2 Besides, Pit Corder states in his book
that error analysis is carried out in three successive stages, they are:
1) Recognition of Errors
It is crucially dependent upon interpretation of the learners’ intentions.
2) Description of Errors
In this step, one tries to show they have failed to realize the intended message.
3) Explanation of Errors
Explanation is still largely speculative because of our limited knowledge of the
psychological and neurological process involved in language learning.3
So the writer tries to conclude that the errors analysis is a way of looking at
errors made by the learners of the target language, as a source of information to
the teachers, which in turns helps them correct the students’ errors, and improves
the effectiveness of their teaching.
1. The Differences between Errors and Mistakes
Learning a language is fundamentally process that involves making of
mistakes or errors. The mistakes include with vocabulary items, grammatical
pattern, and sound patters as well.
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second language acquistion. 12 September 2011 2
David Crystal, An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Languages, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), p. 125.
3
James (1998) differentiates between errors and mistakes. He defines errors
as a systematic mistakes due to lack of language competence while mistakes
refers to performance errors because of a random guess or slip. While errors
cannot be self-corrected, mistakes can be self-corrected if the deviation is pointed
out to the speaker.4
Meanwhile, Edge (1989) offers simpler definitions that are especially
important for classroom teachers to keep in mind. He states that a slip or mistake
is what a learner van self-correct.5 Furthermore, Corder (1967) defines mistakes
as a random performance caused by fatigue, excitement, etc; therefore, it can
readily be self-corrected. Errors are systematic deviation made by learners who
have not yet mastered the rules of the target language. Consequently, learners
cannot self-correct an error because it is a product reflective of the learner’s stage
of target language development, or underlying competence.6
To sum up, mistakes are failure to use language because of slip of the
tongue, or spelling. The learner easily corrects this failure since they conceptually
understand the language system. On the other hand, errors are mistakes that the
students make due to lack of competence. They are not able to do self-correction
because they do not know the concept.
2. The Causes of Errors
Errors occur for many reasons. One obvious cause is interference from the
native language. The learners may make errors because they assume that the target
language and their native language are similar. While in fact they are different,
they generalize the similarity between the target language and their mother tongue
known usually as ‘overgeneralization’.
Another obvious cause is simply an incomplete knowledge of the target
language. The students are asked to produce words or sentences that they have not
yet learnt in grammar; therefore they often might made several mistakes. For
4
Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 4th Edition., (New York: Longman, 2000), p. 217.
5
Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 4th Edition., ...p. 217. 6
example, English has different tenses to indicate time of happening, such as
present, past, and future, while Indonesian language does not. Therefore, these
differences obviously cause many Indonesian learners make errors in tenses.
John Norrish exposes three types and causes of errors:
a. Carelessness: it is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers will admit that it is not always the students’ fault if he loses interest; perhaps the materials and/or the style of presentation do not suit him.
b. First language interference: It was commonly believed until fairly recently that learning a language (mother tongue or a foreign language)
was a matter of habit formation. The learners’ utterances were thought to be gradually ‘shaped’ towards those of the language he was learning. For instance, in English ‘some’ and ‘any’ are used in different ways. c. Translation: it should be made clear at this point that the distinction
between ‘interference’ is that what takes place is largely unconscious in
the mind of the learner.7
Meanwhile, Brown (2000) states that “Causes of errors are inter-lingual transfer, intra-lingual transfer, context of learning, and communication
strategies.”8
For more details, please look at the explanations below:
a. Inter-lingual transfer
Inter-lingual transfer is cause of error from transferring knowledge or
grammar into the target language. It means the native language interference the
target language in terms of patterns, system or rules.
b. Intra-lingual transfer
Intra-lingual transfer refers to errors caused by the lack competence of the
language being learnt (TL). There are items produced by the learner that does not
reflect the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial
exposure to the target language. The learner tries in this case to derive the rules
behind the data to which has been exposed by the learner, and may develop
hypotheses that correspond neither to the mother tongue nor to the target
language.
7
John Norrish, Language Learners and Their Errors, (London: Macmillan, 1983), pp. 21– 26.
8
c. Context of learning
A third major source of error, although it overlaps both types of transfer, it
is the context of learning. “Context” refers, for example, to the classroom with its
teacher and its material in the case of school learning or the social situation in the
case of untutored second language learning. In a classroom context, the teacher or
the textbook can lead the learner to make faulty hypotheses about the language.
Students often make errors because of a misleading explanation from the teacher,
faulty presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a
pattern that was rottenly memorized in a drill, but it is improperly contextualized.
In addition, teacher may provide incorrect information-not an uncommon
occurrence-by way of a misleading definition, word, or grammatical
generalization. Another manifestation of language learned in classroom contexts
is the occasional tendency on the part of learners to give in contracted and
inappropriately formal forms of language. The sociolinguistic context of natural,
untutored language acquisition can give rise to certain acquisition that may itself
be a source of error. For example, a Japanese immigrant who lived in a
predominantly Mexican American area of a US city produced a learner language
that was an interesting blend of Mexican American English and the standards
English colored by his Japanese accent.
d. Communication strategies
Communication strategies are a means whereby a learner can express
himself in the language he is learning, using some sort of ‘inter language’ as a
half-way house between his own and his target language.9
In conclusion, there are some aspects that may lead errors in learning the
target language. The cause of errors may come from the interference of native
language to the target one, the lack of competence of the target language, the
learning environment, and the personal learning strategies.
9
3. The Classification of Errors
Azar in her book explains that there are thirteen kinds of errors that the
students frequently make in their writing, as follows:
a. SINGULAR-PLURAL
The sentence “He have been here for six months” should be replaced by “He
has been here for six months”.
b. WORD FORM
The sentence “I saw a beauty picture” should be replaced by “I saw a beautiful picture”.
c. WORD CHOICE
The sentence “She got on the taxi” should be replaced by “She got into the taxi.
d. VERB TENSE
The sentence “He is here since June” should be replaced by “He has been here since June”.
e. ADD A WORD
The sentence “I want __ go to the zoo” should be replaced by “I want to go
to the zoo”.
f. WORD ORDER
The sentence “I saw five times that movie” should be replaced by “I saw that movie five times”.
g. INCOMPLETE SENTENCE
The sentence “I went to bed. Because I was tired” should be replaced by “I went to bed because I was tired”.
h. SPELLING
The sentence “An accident occured” should be replaced by “An accident
occurred”.
i. PUNCTUATION
j. CAPITALIZATION
The sentence “I am studying english” should be replaced by “I am studying English”.
k. ARTICLE
The sentence “I had accident” should be replaced by “I had an accident”. l. MEANING NOT CLEAR
The sentence “He borrowed some smoke. ( ? ? ? )”. m.RUN-ON SENTENCE
The sentence “My roommate was sleeping, we didn’t want to wake her up” should be replaced by “My roommate was sleeping. We didn’t want to wake her
up”. 10
4. The Procedures of Errors Analysis
In the language teaching, either a native language or a second language
teaching, study about the students’ errors is very important. Theo Van Els and
friends states that there are some procedures in errors analysis, namely;
a. Identification of errors
b. Description of errors
c. Explanation of errors
d. Evaluation of errors
e. Preventing/correction of errors11
The first step in the process of analysis is identification of errors. In this
step, teachers recognize the students’ errors from the task given. The second step
is the description of errors begun when identification stages have taken place. The
description of the students’ errors involves classification of sort of errors made by
the students.
The third step is explanation of errors that can be regarded as a linguistic
problem. This step attempts to account for how the errors can happen and why the
10
Bety Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, 2nd Edition, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992), p. A29.
11
errors occur. The fourth step is the evaluation of errors in which the teachers will
give the task to the students.
Finally, the last step is the process of analysis is correction of errors where
the teachers check the result from the task done by the students. Then, they correct
the errors that the students made.
Example:
Table 2.1
The Examples of the Procedures of Errors Analysis Identification
of Errors
Classification of Errors Description
Explanation Correction Causes of Errors I not go to
school every
Sunday
Omit a word ‘not’ should
be preceded
by ‘do’
I do not go
to school
every
Sunday
Inter-lingual
Transfer
I am want to
buy that
gorgeous stuff
Add a word ‘am’ should
be omitted
I want to
buy that
gorgeous
stuff
Context of
Learning
B. Grammar
For most people, the essence of language lies in grammar. It enables us to
make statements about how to use our language. In brief, grammar represents
one’s linguistic competence; therefore it include many aspects of linguistic knowledge: the sound system (phonology), the system of meaning (semantics),
the rules of word formation (morphology), the rules of sentence (syntax), and the
vocabulary of words (lexicon).
grammar (syntax and morphology) reveals a structure and regularity, which lies at
the basic of language and enables us to talk of the language system.”12
1. The Definitions of Grammar
Penny Ur noted that “Grammar is defined as words are put together to make
correct sentences it does not only affect how the units of words are combined in
order to make correct sentences but also affects their meaning.”13
Besides, Paul
Robert noted that “Grammar is a body of generalization about how people says
thing in order to make generalization, we must agree on the meaning of terms for
the things we wish to talk about. Grammar accuracy is only part of
communication to convey a message, where grammar is merely a tool. According
to Scott Thornburry (1999) wrote “Grammar is partly the study of what forms (or
structures) are possible in language. Traditionally, grammar has been concerned
almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence formed rules that
govern how a language’s sentences are formed.”14
In conclusion, grammar is a
field of linguistic that involves all the various things that make up the rules of
language.
2. The Types of Grammar
Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive
and prescriptive. Both views of grammar are in wide use, although in general,
linguists tend towards a descriptive approach to grammar, while people are
teaching a specific language; English, might tend towards a more prescriptive
approach.15 David Crystal lists six types of grammar: descriptive grammar,
pedagogical grammar, prescriptive grammar, reference grammar, theoretical
grammar, and traditional grammar.16
Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker state that there are four types of grammar;
prescriptive grammar is primarily interested in constructing rules of usage for the
prestige variety of a language, descriptive grammar is primarily interested in
12
Paul Batstone, Grammar, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950), p. 4 13
Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 75.
14
Scott Thornburry, How to teach grammar, (London: Longman, 1999), p. 1. 15
http://www.answers.com/topic/grammar, 8 Juli 2009 16
describing the basic sentence patterns of all varieties of a language. Then,
generative grammar is primarily interested in discovering those principles of
sentence formation that are part of the human biological endowment, performance
grammar is primarily interested in the effects of context and real-time limitations
on language use.17
In the writer’s opinion, grammar can be divided into two main points;
descriptive and prescriptive grammar that can be broken down again into many
different points with different point of views.
C.Sentences
Sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question or an order,
usually containing a subject and a verb.18 Before the conditional sentences are
discussed, it may be necessary to know about the definition of sentence. A
sentence is a complete meaning. When we speak, our sentences may be extremely
involved or even unfinished, yet we can still convey our meaning through
intonation, gesture, facial expression, etc. When we write, these devices are not
available, so sentences have to be carefully structured and punctuated. In addition,
a written sentence must be begun with a capital letter and with a full stop (.), a
question mark (?), or an exclamatory mark (!).19
1. The Definitions of Sentences
As Hornby states in his dictionary “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
of Current English” is not only the largest grammatical unit consisting of phrases, but also clause which is used to express a statement, question, command, etc.
Meanwhile, traditional grammar translates a sentence in one of two ways.
First, it is defined by meaning. Sentence is a complete thought. Second, it is
defined by function, stating that sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The definition that offers here includes both functional and formal characteristics
17
Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker, English Grammar: Prescriptive, Descriptive, Generative, Performance, (Boston: A Pearson Education Company, 1998), p. 3.
18
A S Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th Edition., (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 1383.
19
of a sentence; a sentence is a full prediction containing a subject plus a predicate
with a finite verb. 20
In conclusion, sentences are defined as group of words consisting of subject
and verb having a complete meaning.
2. The Types of Sentences
There are four types of sentences; simple sentence, compound sentence,
complex sentence, compound complex sentence.
a. Simple sentencecontains one full subject and predicate. It takes the form of:
1) A statement, e.g. He lives in New York.
2) A question, e.g. How old are you?
3) A request, e.g. Please close the door. (The subject you is understood). 4) An exclamation, e.g. What a terrible temper she has!
b. Compound sentencecontains two or more sentences joined by:
1) Punctuation alone, e.g. The weather was very bad; all classes were
canceled.
2) Punctuation alone and a conjunctive adverb, e.g. The weather was very
bad; therefore all classes were canceled.
3) A coordinate conjunction (and, or, but, yet, so, far), e.g. The weather was
very bad, so all classes were canceled.
When such sentences are joined coordinately, they are each called
independent clauses.
c. Compound sentencecontains one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses.
A dependent clause contains a full subject and predicate beginning with a word
that attaches the clause to an independent clause (called the main clause). Here are
the clauses:
1) Adverbial clause, e.g. All classes were canceled because the weather was
bad.
2) Adjective clause, e.g. Children who are under twelve years must be
accompanied by their parents.
20
3) Noun clause, e.g. I can’t understand why you did such a thing.
d. Compound complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.
All classes were canceled because the weather was bad, and students were
told to listen to the radio to find out when classes would begin again.21
D. The Conditional Sentences
A conditional sentence is used to express something expected or unexpected
which may or may not be occured. It consists of two clauses, a dependent clause
beginning with if – clause (or another conjunction performing the general
function), and a main clause which gives the result of the if clause.22 Martin Parott
wrote that “conditional sentences consist of two clauses a main – (‘conditional’) clause containing a verb in a form with will or would, and a subordinate clause
that is introduced by if”.23
1. The Definition of Conditional Sentences
According to Longman Dictionary, conditionl sentence is “one that begin with ‘if’ or ‘unless’ expressing something that must be true or happen before something else can be true or happen”.24
Pamela J. Sharpe defines “conditional as
statement with ‘if’ or ‘unless’, they are opinions about the conditional influence result and opinions about the result”.25In the writer’s opinion, it can be concluded
that conditional sentences are sentences with “if” or “unless” expressing situation or condition that might come true or happen before something else may happen.
For more details, there are some explanation below:
I will help you if you want; He would come if you called.
21
Marcella Frank, Modern English, Exercise for Non–native Speakers Part II: Sentences and Complex Structures, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972), p. 1.
22
George E. Wishon and Julia Burks, Let’s Write English, (New York: American Book Company, 1980), p. 249.
23
Martin Parott, Grammar for English Language Teachers, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 231.
24
Longman Dictionary of contemporary English, (England: New Delhi: Gobsons Paper Limited).
25
What expressed in the main clause, it depends – or is conditional – on what
expressed in the subordinate if clause;
I will turn on the heating if it gets colder.
The if clause can come first or last in the sentence with no change in
meaning. Notice that when the if clause comes first, it is followed by a comma;
If we did not have to study, we could go out tonight or we could go out tonight if
we did not have to study. 26 Here are alternates to if stating sort of conditions in
conditional sentences:
a. Negatives Conditions
We often use unless to express a negative conditions. It is similar to if ... not
or only if:
1) Unless you have got a doctor’s note to say you have passed the medicine, they
will not allow you to go on the activity holiday.
(If you do not have a doctor’s note ..., they will not allow you ...)
2) I would not be willing to help you out again unless you paid me.
(I would help you only if you paid me.)27
b. Necessary Conditions
We use the conjunctions provided/providing(that), so/as long as and on the
condition (that) to emphasize that the condition is necessary to the result. They all
mean onlyif:
1) The system will not have to be drained provided that antifreeze has been added.
2) Expenses will be reimbursed on the condition that all receipts are submitted.
To express a necessary condition for something to have happened in the past,
we use but for + noun phrase:
3) They would have all perished, but for the quick thiniking of the driver.
(... if it had not been for the quick thinking of the driver.)28
26
Michael A. Ple and Mar Munoz Page, TOEFL Preparation Guide, (New Jersey: Cliffs Publishers, 1994), p. 115.
27
Mark Foley and Diane Hall,Longman Advanced Learner;’s Grammar....p. 123. 28
c. Imaginary Conditions
We use suppose/supposing (that)... and what if ... to talk about imaginary
conditions.
1) Suppose he asked you to go to the cinema with him, would you go?
2) What if the money doesn’t arrive on time?
We often use in case to imagine a precaution necessary for a situation:
3) She gave me the key to get in the house in case you were out.
4) In case of (an) emergency, pull the cord above the bath. d. Unexpected Conditions
We use even if to express a condition that is unexpected in the
circumstances:
e.g. Even if they do go down with flu after they have had the vacation, it’s likely
to be less serious.
e. Alternative Conditions
We use whether ... or not to express alternative conditions (for conditional
patterns):
e.g. They will deliver the furniture whether there is someone to receive it or not.29
2. The Types of Conditional Sentences
There are three kinds of conditional sentences in English. Each kind
contains a different pair of tenses. Each type contains many varieties that are
possible, but the students who are studying the conditional sentences for the first
time may ignore it and concentrate on the basic forms. In this “skripsi”, the writer
uses the term ‘if clause’ and ‘main clause’ as A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet
stated in their book “A Practical English Grammar”, although another term also
is used in this clause. Betty Schramfer Azar used term ‘if clause’ and ‘result
clause’.30
29
Mark Foley and Diana Hall, Longman Advanced Learners’ Grammar, ...p. 123. 30
a. Type One of Conditional Sentences
Type one of conditional is defined as a sentence that express a
future-possible condition refers to an action that may not taken place in the future. The
present tense of the verb is used in the if clause, and the future tense is used in the
main clause. The if clause may precede or follow the main clause.31
This conditional type is also called possible conditional in which the if
clause states the condition; the result clause states the result. In addition, simple
present is used in the if clause. The explanation will be described more through
the table on the next page:
Table 2.2
The Formula of Type One of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause
If Clause Main Clause
If + S1 + Verb 1 S2 + will + Verb 1
If it gets colder tonight
If I learn
I will turn on the heating.
I will pass the exam.
Table 2.3
The Formula of Type One of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause
Main Clause If Clause
S1 + will + Verb 1 If + S1 + Verb 1
He will get up early,
I will go shopping this afternoon
If he catches the fast train.
If I have enough time.
This type of sentence implies that the action in the if clause is quite
probable. The meaning here is present or future, but the verb in if – clause is in
present, not a future tense.
1) Variation in main clause
Except from if + present +future, it can also be used:
31
a) If + present + may/might (to express possibility), for example:
If the rain gets heavier the rice fields may/might be flooded.
If the dry season becomes longer the famine may/might happen.
b) If + present + may (permission) or can (ability or permission), for examples:
If your documents are in order you may/can leave at once. (permission)
If it stops raining we cn go out. (ability or permission)
c) If + present + must, should (command or advice), for examples:
If you want to lose weight, you must/should eat less bread. (command)
If you want to lose weight you had better eat less bread. (advice)
d) If + present + another present tense
Two present tense are used to express natural laws and habitual reactions,
for example:
If you heat ice it turns to water.
2) Variation of the if clause
The present perfect or present continuous may replace the present tense in
type one:
a) If you have finished that exercises I will show you how to do the next one.
b) If you are staying for another night, I will ask the manager to give you a
better room.32
In this conditional type, modal can also be used in the result clause.
a) If the result of the test is negative, you’ll receive notification through the
post.
b) If we want to vote, you must register. 33
Also, we can use the first conditional to express a variety of functions,
which are explained on following page:34
32
A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical English Grammar 2nd edition., (New York: Oxford University Press: 1986), p. 218.
33
Majorie Fuchs and Margaret Boner, Grammar Express for Self in Study or the Classroom, (England: Pearson Education Limited, 2003), p. 283.
34
- Commands
If you get home late, don’t wake us up!
Don’t forget to close the windows if you go out, will you?
- Offers
I’ll call the hotek if you don’t have plenty of time
I’ll be there if you want to wait for me in 10 minutes.
- Suggestions
Shall we go out tomorrow if the weather’s good?
Shall you join us if your parents come with me for the gathering?
- Warnings
I’ll call the police if you don’t leave right now!
Note that we use an imperative in the main clause for commands. Actually,
to make this conditional pattern more formal, we can omit if and use should
before the subject, as the example below:
Should you be less than delighted with our product, we will refund your
money immediately.
b. Type Two of Conditional Sentences:
This kind of conditional sentences describes a situation, which does not
exist or is unreal.35 Such conditions are either impossible to realize or are not
likely to be realized in the near future. It does not expect that the condition in the
if clause to become a fact.36
Type two of conditional sentences or second conditional is also known as
the unlikely or improbable conditional which is used to talk about unreal, untrue,
imagined or impossible conditions in present. John Shepherd stated “there are four
main points for students to learn, as follows:
1) The pattern is if + past, conditional (or vice versa)
2) After if, we use the past tense.
3) The conditional verb goes in the “non-if” half of the sentences.
35
Marcella Frank, Modern English, Exercise for Non–native Speakers Part II: Sentences and Complex Structures, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,: 1972), p. 33.
36
4) This pattern is used to describe imaginary – often impossible – events”.37
The verb in the if clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause is in
the conditional sentences. The formulas will be explained more through the table
below:
Table 2.4
The Formula of Type Two of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause
If Clause Main Clause
If + S1 + V2... S2 + Would + V1...
If I sold my boat, I would take you to dinner.
If I were snowing, I would drive you home
If I lived in Europe, I would eat pizza often.
There is no difference in time between the first and second types of
conditional sentence. They refer to present or future, and past tense in the if –
clause is not true past but a subjunctive, which indicates unreality (as in the first
example above) or improbability (as in the second example above).38 Here are the
explanations below:
1) Variation in Main Clause will be presented below:
Similarly, the past tense can be used with might or could:
If you tried again, you would succeed. (certain result)
If you tried again, you might succeed. (possible result)
If it stopped snowing, you could go out. (ability or permission)39
2) Variation in the if clause will be explained more below:
3) If + past continuous
If I were going by boat, I’d feel much happier.
4) If + past perfect
If he had taken my advice, he would be a rich man now.
37
John Shepherd, Multilevel English Grammar Programme, (London: Prentice Hall Macmillan, 1995), p. 144.
38
A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical,.. p. 197. 39
Marcella Frank also states in her book „Modern English’: “A conditional
clause containing a past unreal form may be combined by a main clause
containing a present unreal form”, e.g. If the boy had listened to his parents last year, he would not be in trouble now.40
c. Type Three of Conditional Sentences:
This kind of conditional sentences indicates past time, unreal, and
unfulfilled situation.41 The verb in the If clause is in the past perfect tense; the
verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional. In addition, it explains about
past time and the condition cannot be fulfilled, because the action in the if clause
did not happen.42 The formulas will be explained more through the table below:
Table 2.5
The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause
If Clause Main Clause
If + S1 + had + past perfect S2 +would +have + past participle
If we had not wasted time We would not have missed the train.
Table 2.6
The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause
H
40
Marcella Frank, Modern English, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1972), p. 37. 41
George Wishonand Julia Burks, Let’s Write..., p. 251. 42
A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical English..., p. 200.
Main Clause If Clause
S + would + have + past
participle
If + S1 + had + past perfect
I would have been more
sympathetic,
If she had not accused me of
Here we know that the conditional sentences can not be fulfilled, because
the sentence refers only to past event. Also, there is variation in the basic form in
this type of conditional sentences. More explanation will be conveyed below:
Variation in the Basic Form
Might or could can also be used in these following sentences:
a. If we had found him earlier, we could have saved his life. (Ability)
b. If we had found him earlier, we might have saved his life. (Possibility)
c. If our documents had been in order we could have left at once. (Ability or
permission)
There are some additions in conditional sentences forms likeinversion of
subject and auxiliary, with if omitted and if only;
1) Inversion of Subject and Auxiliary, with if omitted
Where if is followed by an auxiliary verb, e.g. by were, had, or should, it is possible to invert auxiliary and omit the if :
a) If I were rich = were I rich (were must be used with this contraction, never
was).
b) If he had known = had he known.
c) If war should break out = should war break out.
2) Inversion of Subject and Auxiliary, with if omitted
Only can be placed after if which indicates hope, a wish, or regret according
to the tense to be used with.
If only + present tense/will expresses hope:
a) If only he comes in time = we hope he will come.
b) If only he will listen to her = we hope he will be willing to listen.
If only + past/past perfect express regret (it has same meaning as wish + past/past
perfectly):
a) If only he did not smoke! = we wish he did not smoke or we are sorry he
smokes.
If only + would express regret about a present action as an alternative to if only +
past tense
c) If only he would drive more slowly = we are sorry that he is not willing to
drive more slowly!
As Penny Ur states that the use of conditonal sentences (any type) to
describe result of actions, transformations, and also some free composition; oral
and written.
The ‘first conditional’ is used to describe superstitions; free composition of single sentences, oral or written. For example:
a) You will have bad luck, if you walk under a ladder.
b) If you walk under a ladder, you will have bad luck.
The ‘second conditional’ is used to express fulfilled desires; free
composition of sentences; mostly written, and to describe hypothetical situations;
written and spoken responses. For example:
a) I would take more exercise if I were good at sports.
b) If I were good at sports, I would take more exercise.
The ‘third conditional’ is used to describe contrary – to – fact past
situations; written work as basis for discussion.43 For example:
a) I would have got a better job if I had gone to University.
b) If I had gone to University, I would have got a better job.
3) The Function of Conditional Sentences
In grammar, conditional sentences are sentences discussing factual
implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Languages use a
variety of conditional constructions and verb forms (such as the conditional
mood) to form such sentences.
Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the condition or protasis,
and the consequence or apodosis.
If it rains [condition], (then) the picnic will be cancelled [consequence].
43
Syntactically, the condition is the subordinate clause, and the consequence
is the main clause. However, the properties of the entire sentence are primarily
determined by the properties of the protasis (condition) (its tense and degree of
factualness).
4) The Usages of Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentence may be used in three kinds of types; therefore it must
be appropriate in meaning and form that is explained by a table below:
Table 2.7
The Brief Explanation of Usages of Conditional Sentences
Meaning of the if clause
Verb Form in the if clause
Verb form in the “Result
Clause”
a. If I have enough time, I write
to my parents every week.
b. If I have enough time
tomorrow, I will write to my
parents. True in the
present/future
Simple
Present
Simple
Present
Simple
Future
Meaning of the if clause
Verb Form in the if clause
Verb form in the “Result
Clause”
a. IfI had enough time, I would
write to my parents. (the truth
is that I do not have enough
time, so I will not write to
them). Untrue in the
present/future
Simple
Past
Would +
simple form
Untrue in the
past
Past
Perfect
Would have
+ past
participle
E. Type Two of Conditional Sentences
This kind of conditional sentence describes a situaation which does not exist
or is unreal.44 Type two of conditional sentences are sometimes called
the’second’.’hypothetical’ or ‘unreal’ conditional. We actually use them to refer
to or speculate about something that is (or that we perceive to be) impossible or
‘contrary to fact’.45
The verb in the if clause is in the past tense; the verb in the
main clause is in the conditional sentences.
For example:
- If I had a map, I would lend it to you.
- If someone tried to blackmail me, I would tell the police.
There is no difference in time between the first and second types of
conditional sentences. Type two, like type one, refers to the present or future, and
the past tense in the if clause is not a true past but a subjunctive, which indicates
unreality (as in the first example above) or improbability (as in the second
example above).46 In this type of conditional sentences, the subjunctive “were” is
used for all persons: if I were (instead of If I was), if he were, if we were, if you
were, etc.47
1. The Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences
The form of type two of conditional sentences will be explained by the
following table below:
44
Marcella Frank, Modern English (New Jersey: Prentice Hall: 1972), p. 33. 45
Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teachers (London: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 233–234.
46
A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 198.
47
Table 2.8
The Brief Explanation of Affirmative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences
Affirmative Statements If clause:
Simple Past
Result Clause: Would + Base Form of Verb
If
he loved
her,
he would get married.
he were
in love,
he would get married.
Table 2.9
The Brief Explanation of Short Answer in Type Two of Conditional Sentences
Short Answer
Affirmative Negative
Yes, I would No, I would not.
Table 2.10
The Brief Explanation of WH-Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences
WH-Questions
Result Clause If Clause
What would you do If You loved her?
Table 2.11
The Brief Explanation of Negative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences
Negative Statements
If Clause: Simple Past Result Clause: Would
+ Base Form of Verb
If
he did not love
her,
he were not in
love,
he would not get
married.
he would not get
married.
Table 2.12
The Brief Explanation of Yes/No Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences
Yes/No Questions
Result Clause If Clause
Would I get married If I loved her I were in love?
Look at the explanations below, possible variation of the basic form of type two
of conditional sentences:
a. Variation of the main clause
1) Might or could may be used instead of would:
If you tried again, you would succeed (certain result).
If you tried again, you might succeed (possible result).
If I knew her number, I could ring her up (ability).
If he had a permit, he could get a job (ability or permission).
2) The continuous conditional form may be used instead of the simple
conditional form:
Tom: Peter is on holiday; he is touring Italy.