An analysis on the students' grammatical errors in the TOEFL test a case study of the participants of TOEFL at the center for languages and culture Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University

AJ\r ANALYSIS ON THE STUI>ENTS'

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS IN THE TOEFL TEST

A Case Study of the Participants of TOEFL al The Center for Languages and Culture SyarifHidayatullah State Islamic University

A Skripsi

Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers' Training in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata -1 (SI)

By:

AINI AINUR ROHMAH

9914015772

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

THE FACULTY OF TARBIY AH AND TEACHERS' TRAINING

SY ARIF HIDAY ATllLLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

JAKARTA

A Case Study of the Participants of TOEFL at The Center for Languages and Culture SyarifHidayatulah State Islamic University

A Skripsi

Presented to the Faculty ofTarbiyah and Teachers' Training

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for

the Degree of Strata-I (S 1)

By:

AJ:NI AINUR ROHMAH

9914015772

Approved by: Advisor

Drs. Nasrun Mahmu.fu._MP\!

150 041 070

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

THE FA CUL TY OF TARBIY AH AND TEACHERS' TRAINING

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE JSLAMJC UNIVERSITY

Lt''.GALIZATION OF EXAMINATION COMMMITl't'.I•'.

A 'skripsi' titled "Al" ANALYSIS ON THE STUDENTS' GRAMMATICAL ERRORS

IN ·;·HE

TOEfL TEST

(A

Case Study of the Participants of TOEFL Test at rhe Cemer

for Languages and Ct.iturc Syarif ｈｩ､｡ｹ｡ｴｵｩｬｾｨ＠ State lslarnic University" was examined

at ex?mination session of the Faculty of Tarbiyah anj Teachers' Training Syarif

Hidayatulah State Islamic University (Ul1\1

) Jakarta, on f(.bruary 6°', 2004. This 'skripsi' has fulfilled the requirements for the Degree of Strata I (Si) at English Department .

.ommmce

i_'cq[ Dr. H_-3.alman Ha

-,w

NIP. i 50 062 568

Examiner l

'

ｾｮＭＭ

Examination Committee

ｐｲｌＮｴｬＮＡｾ＠

, __ Mll_lliLS\2!1Qitdji,_JyLfu

NIP. i Su USO 682

.

,

Jakarta, February 6", 2004

The Secretary of Committee

Examiner II

Almighty and The Lord of all that exist. May Allah's peace and blessing be upon His final Prophet Muhammad SAW, his family and followers.

This "skripsi" is presented to the English Department of the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers' Training of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Strata- I (S 1 ).

It is a great honor for the writer to make acknowledgement of indebtedness to convey her sincere gratitude to Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd. who has patiently given valuable advice and guidance to finish this "skripsi".

The writer also like rn convey her sincere gratitude particularly to:

I. Prof' Dr. H. Salman Harun, as a Dean of The Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers' Training.

2. Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd, as a Head of English Department and al:;o Drs. Syauki, M.Pd, as the Secretary of English Department.

3. H. Alwi Rofi'i her beloved father and Rulianti Rohadi her beloved mother who always encourage the writer with all of their heart and her beloved brothers "Rofiq and Ozan" and her lovely sister" Datu!".

4. For her beloved "Mr. Jo", thanks for your love, suppo11, and encouragement to finish this "skripsi" and all her friends, especially: Na.in, Sheren, Dian, Nina Ros. Fido!, Ochid, Oshin, Hendra, Aly, and her classmates in A Class '99 that the writer can't mention one by one here, thanks for your support and cooperation.

Finally, she realizes that this "skripsi" is far from being perfect. It is a pleasure for her to receive constructive criticism and suggestion for improving this "skripsi''.

TABLE: OF CONTE:NTS

Acknowledgement. .

Table of Contents .. II

List of Tables ... . IV

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... .

A. The Background of Study ...

B. The Limitation and the Formulation of the Study .... 5

C. The Use of Study ... . 5

D The Method of Study.... . ... 5

E. The Organization of Writing ... . 6

CHAPTER Il: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... . 7

A. TOEFL .. 7

1. The Definition and the Use of TOEFL . 7 2. Grammar .. 9

a. The Definition . 9 b. Type of Skills Tested in Structure ... 10

B. Errnr A ialysis ... ' _-ｾＴ｜＠ _! I. The Definition and Types of Error Analysis . '.26 2. The Sources and the Goals of Error Analysis ... 30

2. Table II. The Frequency of Error In Subject and Verb.

3. Table Ill. The Frequency of Error In Verb Agreement, Tense and Form.

4. Table IV. The Frequency of Error In Full Subordination

5. Table V. The Frequency of Error In The Verbal.

6. Table VI. The Frequency of Error In Pronoun Form, Agreement and Reference.

7. Table Vil. The Frequency of Error In Word form.

8. Table VIII. The Frequency of Error fn Word Order.

9. Table IX. The Frequency of Error f n Parallel Structure.

10. Table X. The Frequency of Error In Correct Usage

11.Table XI. The Sequence of Structure Skill Area Based on Its High Frequency

of Error.

CHAPTER

1

INTRODUCTION

A. The Background of the Study

Language is a means of communication with the purpose or expressing ideas, opinion, information, feeling, and so forth. In this era of globalization, Indonesia is one of the countries in this world that cannot close olT from the need of mastering foreign language. So it can grow fully and Indonesian people love their country and have responsibility for the development of science, technology, and art in the whole country. In this case, mastering English gives a contribution to increase the quality of Indonesian human resources.

English is one of the languages, which is w;dely used all over the world. It is clear that English will play an important role for communication world. To realize that ideal goal, English is the first foreign language, which is taught as the most important language in developing students and gaining modern science, technology and arts.

It

goes without saying that a student of English should be aware of the

existence of TOEFL. TOEFL is an abbreviation or "Test of English as a

Foreign Language ". It is a test that measures one's English proficiency for

non native-speaker.

1 I!

is given each year to thousands of students who plan to

enter university either graduate or undergraduate level. Admission committees

in

the various universities use the individual score from the TOEFL to

determine a student's competence

in

English. It is to measure the Corcign

students English proficiency objectively.

Before TOEFL Test is known in Jndoncsia, English is tested

by

using

"A Proficiency Test of English " known as ALIGU (American Language

Institute of George Town University). '"hen other forms of English from

USA, which arc known as TESL ('!'est or English as A S..:cond Language)

Recognized as a test of English as a Foreign LanguJgc, TOEFL has

become popular in Indonesia in the last two decades. It is that TOEFL Test is

"Reluctantly Accepted" by Great BRITAIN. The purpose of' a TOEFL Test is

to evaluate the English proficiency of people whose native language is not

English.

TOEFL test related to language skills such as grammar, reading, and

listening. It is clear that being a fluent speaker of English do,:s not necessarily

mean that it will get a good TOEFL score. It is important to be good not only

1

3

m speaking but also in reading and writing for academic success. In the TOEFL test, they are three sections, where on the llrst ｳＧｾ｣ｴｩｯｮ＠ is listening comprehension, second section are structure and wri!!en expression, and the third section is reading co•nprehension.

Based on the writer's observation, she found that most students received disappointing scores on the TOEFL test that was so important lo them. Through these observations, the writers round that many learners hav.: some difficulties, so they made error on structure. In this cast: error corrections helpful.2 E1 ror correction supposedly helps the learners to figure out the right form of language. The correc ion is only allowed on wri!len work and gnurnnar exercises.

Grammar is a component of basic skills of foreign language. It is clearly one

c'f

the most important things in language that frequently appears some problems. According to Widson ( 1970) " Grammar is a component language enables us to make our message clear and precise. "3 As it is k11own that English grammar is different from Indonesian Gral11mar. Consequently, the difference makes the learners diflkult to develop good English proficiency because the acquired Indonesian grammar has been imprinted in their mind. The difference between the grammar of native language and that

2

Krashen, D. Stephen, l)ri1u.:i11les a1lll J'raclice ｩＱＱＮｾＧ･｣ｯｊｊｬＯ＠ J.anguaxe 1JcquisitioJ1, (Ne\v "York. Pergamon Press Ltd., 1982), p. 117-118

of target language is one of the factors, which induces the students to make many errors m grammar.

Although " the error is natural " ·1as John Norrish said, we should be aware of those errors and do something to avoid making errors again and again. In rdation to learners errors it is done a study known as "error analysis" which is an analysis about learners' error in their process of learning a second language. According to Allen and Corder: " in the course of learning of second language the learner produces many forms which are not those which would be produces by a native speaker of the standard forr>1 of the target language"5

Based on the opinion above, the writer would like to analyze some error that students made on structure in TOEFL test as a matter of fact that in learning TOEFL the students find difiicult to comprehend ｴｨＱｾ＠ text in test.

Based on the description above, the title of this "skripsi" is" AN ANALYSIS ON ｔｈｉｾ＠ STUDENTS' GRAMMATICAL ERROR IN THE TOEFL TEST (A Case Study of the Participants of TOEFL at The Center for Languages and Culture of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University)

4

John No1Tish. /,ang11age /.ear11era11,/ lhcir ｦｾｩＮＬＭｯｲ＠ (Ne\v York: 1\!fac-(Jra»v-l-Ii!J Book

Company, J 969) p.9

5

J.P.B. Allen and S.Pit Corder (ed). l'apvrs i11 Applied U111111istics, (Lon<k>n: Oxford

5

H. The Limitation and the Formulation of the Study

The writer will limit the problem on structure faced by the students 111

TOEFL test. The formulation of the problem is: "' what kinds or errors ｡ｲﾷｾ＠

con1monly made by the participants in structure section of the TOEFL test"

C. The Use of Study

This study will discuss about errors done by paiiicipants who arc

attending TOEFL test. Its aim is to know the kind of errors commonly made

by the students in the section or structure. 13y knowing these types or

dilllculty faced by the learner, it is hoped that the teacher, the researcher and

the learner himself can improve teaching ｾｬ･｡ｲｮｩｮｧ＠ process and their English

prollciency.

D. iVlethod of Study

In completing the data, the writer conducts two kinds of researches;

library and field research. In libra1y research, the writer rc:ads some books

written by experts as listed in bibliography to support this writing.

In the 11eld research, the question sheet and students answer or

structure in the TOEFL test is used as a technique of observation, through

E. The Organization of Writing

This Skripsi is divided into five chapters, as follows.

First chapter is the introduction, which consists of four parts.

They are: the background of the study, the limitation and fo1mulation or the study, the use of the study, and the organization writing.

Second chapter is divided into some parts: discussing theoretical frameworL. They are: the definition and the type of error analysis, the cause and the goal of error analysis, the definition of structure and the type of skill tested in structure.

Third chapter ts research methodology and findings. Research methodoloi,>y dealing with place and time of study, population and sample, method of study, technique of data collecting, and technique of data analysis. Study of data finding dealing the descriptive of data, the analysis of data and the interpretation of data.

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL Fll.AME\VOHK

A. TOEFL

I. The De.finition and the Use t!/ TOEFL

ｔｏｆｾｆｌ＠

stands for Test or English as a Foreign Language. It is a test

designed to measL1rc the English language capabtli1y of people who do not

speak English as their first language. It is given each year to thousands of

students who plan to enroll to the university either graduate or undergraduate

level. Bruce Rogers said that the goal of the TOEFL is to measure student's

competence in English objectively.'' We can say that TOEFL score is a valid

indication of student's English proficiency.

Since

1963

the TOEFL has been used by Scholarship selection

committees of government, universities as a standard measure of English

proficiency of their candidates. Now, some professional licensing and

certification '1gencies also use TOEFL score to evaluate English proficiency.

To enter university, TOEFL score is one of the requirements along with

transcript in order to be considered for admission.

6

Bruce Rogers. Ille C'o111J;fete ｃＮＱｵｩﾣａｾ＠ to ＧｻＨＩＯｾﾷＱＬＭＯＬ＠ (Boston, rvlassachusetts: rieinlc &l-fein!e

Publishers, 1993) p. xix

It is very important to have clear understanding that material in the TOEFL test related to grammar, listening, and reading.

The materials of The TOEFL test is divided into three section I. Listening Comprehension

It is the first section of the TOEFL, that tests knowledge 0f spoken English such as might be heard

in

a classroom or other public place. Depending on the facilities available, a test center may use either a record or a tape. At centers with language laboratories, each person will listen through a pair of earphones. There are always forty listening items organized into three groups, paiis A (short dialogs), B (longer dialogs), and C (longer mini-talks), each having separate directions, It takes approximately forty minutes to complete all items. It is spoken only once, which is preceded by a very complete i11troduction, which includes sample items from each part. 7

2.

Structure and Written Expression

The >tructure and written expression section of the TOEFL concentrates on written English. It has two parts containing a total of forty questions and twenty -five minutes is allowed for completing it. P'irt A (sentence completion) which contains of simple sentences, complex sentences and part B (Error Identification) 8

7

Cnrol King and Nancy Stanley. !3111kli11x ,Skills /•(JI· lhe ｬＨＩＯｾﾷＱﾷＱＮ＠ (Jakarta: Binarupa :\ksara,

1989) 2"' edition, p. 2

9

3. Remling Comprehension

It is the last of the section of the TOEFL. It contains fixty items, Forty ···five minutes 1s allowed to complete the parts. Reading Comprehension contains forty items of two dilforcnt types: (i) comprehension passages, (ii) recognit on of restatements''

Speaking about the use ofTOl'FL, as mentioned above that the goal of the TOEFL is to measure the student's English proficiency objectively. It means that TOEFL score as a valid indication of individual competence in English. 10 lt is used as a standard measurement of one of requirements to enter university either graduate or undergraduate level or apply for a job «long with transcript and recommendation.

2. Grammar

a. The definition of Grammar

Learning English language means learning how to use it not to learn what the language is. The essence of using language is not communication. To communicate is to understand another and to be understood by another. To communicate clearly, accurately and effectively we need " the knowledge of grammar as the rules of language.

9_/bid,p.312

Swan defined grammar as " the rules that say how words change, to show different meanings, and how they are combine into sentence. 11 In Oxford dictionary wrote that grammar is " the rule in a language: for changing the forms of words and combining them, into sentences. The Long man dictionary of Contemporary defines grammar as (the study and practice of) the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentence.

Cobbett wrote:

Grammar... teaches us how to make use of words; that is to say, it teaches us how to make use of them in the proper manner. ... to be able to choose the words, which ought to be placed, we must be acquainted with certain principles and rules, and these principles and rules constitute what io. called grammar. (Cobbett, 1819) 12

b. The type of skill tested in structure

The structure and written expression Section of the TOEFL concentrates on written English used in formal written English. It has two parts containing a total

or

forty questions and twenty-five minutes is allowed for completing. It will approximately thirty-five second on each question.

Part A:

Sentence Completion:

there ario: fifteen questions. It is about forty percent of them arc simple sentences, containing only one subject-verb

11

lVJichael Si,.van, J>racticctl ＱｾﾷＱＱ［Ｏｩｳｨ＠ { lsuge (Oxford LJniversities Press, 1972) p. xix

11

combination. The other sixty percent are complex sentences, containing at

least two subject-verb combinations involving some type of subordination.

Each sentence is incurnplcte so it must choose the word or phrase given which

best completes the sentence.

Part E:

Error lde111ijic11tio11;

the1c arc twenty-live questions and as in

part A, about forty percent are simple sentences and sixty percent arc complex

sentences. But in part B, it is only looking for an error, the part of the sentence

that is wrong. The error is always underlined.

13

Ten elements of English sentence structure that are covered in the

structure and written expression section of the TOEFL according to Carol

King and Nancy Stanley in their book

"Building

Skill for

the TOEFL"

organized into the following problem areas:

I. Su/Jfect -

Verb

Every sentence hus at least one subject and one verb. The subject is

usually placed before the verb. The subject is always a noun (i.e. Your

Invitation), pronoun (i.e.

l1),

gerund (i.e. A<;cepting your invitation makes me

happy), infinitive (i.e. To accept your invitation), noun clause (i.e. That vou

invited me)

14

Wrong: Children

they

need love and protection

Correct: Children need love and protection

13

Carol King and Nancy Stanley, Op.Cit. p. 134-135 1

2. Verb Agreement, Tense, and Form

Verbs are the most complex part of speech m Engli;;h. They can take many diffrrent forms and function in many different \Vdys. Problems that may occur with verbs are:

a. Subject-verb agreement

If a subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject 1s plural, the verb must be plural.

Wrong: The teacher with her students are viewing a film Correct: The teacher with her students is viewing a film b. Tense

The tense of verb is correct for the meaning of the sentence if it contains a time maker such as today or two years ago, which controls the tense of verb.

Wrong: John Kennedy has been being died since 1963 Correct: John Kennedy died 1963

c. Forni oflrregular Verb

Many verbs in English have Irregular past and past participle forms. 15 Wrong: This is the first time a player has broke his arm

Correct: This is the first time a play(':r has broken his arm

15

13

3. Full Subordi1111tio11

A complex sentence contains at least two clauses; a main clause and

subordinate clause. A main clause is a subject-verb combination that can

function independently as a sentence A subordinate clause is a subject verb

combination that begins with a word

ｳｵｾｨ＠

as because, which, aner or if and

cannot function independently as a sentence which is dependent on the main

clause for its meaning may function in a sentence as an adjective, an adverb,

or a noun.

(i)

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) usually begins" ith a

pronoun such as

who, whom, whose, !hat, w/11ch, where,

or

when

and

immediately follows the noun or pronoun which it describes.

Example: No one knew the men

who

were standing outside the room

(ii) Ar adverb clause begins with and adverbial conjunction, such as

because, although, ij;

or

while

and is frequently found at the beginning

or the end of a sentence.

Example: The man would have died 1/the doctors had not operated.

(iii) A noun

｣ｬ｡ｵｳＱｾ＠

begins with the word that or a question such as

why,

what,

or

how

and can function Indonesia a sentence in any of the ways

that a noun can.

It is a subordinate clause that fi.Jnctions subjects but they are more commonly used as objects of verbs of telling, feeling, and thinking when a noun clause fi.Jnctions as an object the word that is frequently omitted.

Example: The boy said he

folt

sick The boy said that he felt sick

Both noun clauses and adjective clauses following special words like fact, hope, etc can begin with word that, but only adjective clauses can also begin with the word which.16

Adj Clause: The fact·· (that) the book contains Noun Clause: The fact is that the man is ve1y rich

4. The Verbal

a. Verbal Noun

A gerund is a verlfal which is form by adding the suffi.x -ing to the base form of verb. A gerund never functions as a noun. Gerunds should not be confused with -ing words that are part of all progressive tense verbs.

Example: Swimming is a good exercise. b. Verbal Adjective

Reducing an adjective clause to a phrase or a word can form it. It can take the f(mn of either the present participle (-ing) or the p<1st p;,lfliciple

(-d,-n,-t). (When the noun is being d0scribed is actively '"<loin.is' the actiol), ｴｨｾ＠ present participle is used as t(1e verbal adjective; when the noun is receiver

15

of the action and 1s passively having something Ｇ､ｬｭｾＢ＠ to it, the past participle is used.)

A one-word verbal adjective goes before the noun it describes. A verbal phrase follows the noun it describes.

Adj Clause: Doctors couldn't save the man who was dying 11/ca11cer Verbal Adj: Doctors couldn't save the man wh11 l6'ing o(cancer One-word Verbal Adj: Doctors couldn't save the dying man c. Verbal Phrase

Subordinate clauses of time beginning with a word ｳｵﾷｾｨ＠ as afier, while, or be/ore and suborchnate clauses of cause/result beginning with a word such as because, or since can be reduced to a verbal phrase. This reduction is possible only when the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as the subject of the main clause. 17

I.e. time:

Subordinate clause: While she was playing outside, the child hurt herself Verbal phrase: While playing outside, the child hurt herself

Cause:

Subordinate clause: Hecause he had broken his leg, he was taken to the emergency room

Verbal phrase: Having broken his leg, he was taken to the emergency room

17 _{!hill, p.}

5. Pronoun Form, Agreement, anti Reference

a. Pronoun Form

A pronoun can have up to five different forms:

1. Subject is used for pronouns that follow the verb to be. I.e. it was he at the door and used when the subjects of two c:lauses are being compar,:d. I.e. She is taller than he (is)

2. Object is used for a pronoun that functions as the object of a preposition. I.e. everyone except her took the test and used when the objects of two clauses are being compared. I.e. The teacher

like

you

better than (she likes) me

3. Possessive adjective is used when a pronoun modiJies

a

gerund. I.e. the audience really likes his singing

4. Possessive pronoun is used alter the preposition of meanmg possession.

I.e.

Johan is

a

good friend of mine

5. Reflexive is used to emphasize the noun or pronoun it refers to. I.e. I always do the dishes myself" and used as the object of the preposition by to mean that a person does something alone or without help. l.1:. Young children cannot get dressed by themselves

b. Pronoun Agreement

I. A plural pronoun is used lo refer lo words joined by both ... and or two or more words joined by and

17

2. A singular pronoun is used lo refer to these indefinite pronouns, which are singular in form and require verbs. I.e. Eve1JYJ11e must do his

homework

3. When two words are joined by either. .. or, neither ... nor ... or not only ... but also ... the pronoun should agree with the part it closer. I.e. either the students or the leaclzer will give you his hook c. Pronoun Reference

The pronouns which begin adjective clauses (who and which) refer to the nouns that come before them. Different pronouns are used to different types of nouns.

I.e. He is very careful which prevents many accidents

6. Word Form

Attaching a short form called an affix to either the beginning or the end of a word makes many English words. The word it self is referred to as a stem. The fonn at the beginning of the stem is called prefix, and the form at \he end is called suffix. I.e. happy (stem), unhappy (prefix), happiness (suffix).

The prefix :hanges the meaning of the word but not the part of speech. The suffix however changes the paii of speech but dpes i'lot genei:ally change the meaning.

I. Noun forming suffixes i.e. suffixes that change a verb into a noun ( -ment (achieve-ment); al (betrayal); -ance or -ence (acquintance, conference); etc) and adjective into a noun (-ness (awareness); -ity (captivity))

2. Verb for111ing suffixes i.e. suffixes that change a noun into a verb (-ize (harmonize; -ate (facilitate) -ify (beautify)) and an adjective into verb (-en (blacken))

3. Adjective forming suffixes i.e. sufllxes that change a noun into adjective (-al or -ial (agricultural, commercial); -y (bossy); -ai)' (primary); etc) and a verb into adjective (-ive (comparative); -able (desirable); -ant or-ent (pleasant, different)) 18

7. Word Order

The most common word of the core parts of sentence Indonesia English is subject+ verb+ object (S+ V+O). the subject comes before the verb Indonesia all but a few special situations . Indonesia these situations the word order is inverted and the verb is placed before the subject: just as it is Indonesia a.I direct questions.

a. When a sentence begins with a prepositional phrase, has an intransitive verb as a main verb, and states a location. I.e. On the corner .vtood a p'.llicc

officer.

b. In Conditional sentence (type 2 and 3) without if or unless.

I.e. (lfhe asked her, she would surely help him) type 2

Were he to ask her, she would surely help him

(If he had known, he would have comeO type 3

Had he known, he would have come

19

c. When a sentence begins with a" negative " word or eKpression such as

never, hardly, seldom, rarely, barely, scarcely, not only, and etc.

I.e. Not only did he leave me, but also broke my heart

Real: Not only has he left me, but he has also broken my heart

d. When a sentence begins with only and a time expression. The subject and

verb of the main clause Indonesia inverted.

I.e. Otily after I reminded him, he realize his mistake

e. When a sentence begins with few, such, so, little, unless.

I.e. Little does she khow that she had won the grahd prize

[ When a ｰ｡ｳｾﾷｩｶ･＠ verb is split and the main verb begins the sentence. t'J

I.e. Held as hostages were several reporter

Real: Several reporter were held as hostages

8. Pam/le/ Structure

Many sentences present a series of ideas about one perscrn or object All parts of series must have the grammatical structure. When all the parts of a series Indonesia a sentence have the same grammatical structure, the sentence has good 1mallel structure.

a. A series of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs

I. They offered their time, their money, and their energy 2. He was tall, blond, and handsome

3. She sings, dances, and plays the guitar

4. He does his work quickly, carefully and efficiently b. A series of gerunds and infinitives

Although both gerunds infinitives can function as nouns and can be used interchange'"bly it is not good to change from one type of verbal noun to another to another in the same sentence.

Wrong: I don't like to play tennis or swimming Gerund: I don't like playing tennis and swimming Infinitive: I don't like to play tennis and to swim c. A series of phrases and clauses

Within a sentence phrases must be parallel with phrases and clauses must be parallel with other clauses.

2l

Phrases: because of her hard work because of her intelligence

Wrong: She has succeeded because she works hard and because of her intelligence

Correct: She has succeeded because she works hard and because she is intelligent

She has succeeded because of her hard work and because of her intelligence

d. Correlative Conjunctions

Either ... or, neither. ... nor, not only ... but also, both ... and , must be correctly placed.

Wrong: Water bothjlow.1· over and through porous soil Correct: Water flows botlz over and through porous soil e. Comparisons

I. Demands that only those things that are a like can actually compared.

Wrong: The area of Alaska is rrcater than Texas

Correct: The area of Alaska is greater than that of Texas

2. When one member of a group is cc>mpared to the other members of the group is necessary to exclude the member from the group by using the words any other or anyone else.

3. When two persons or things are compared in two ways and combined, all part of both comparisons must be retained. 20

Comparison 1: Maria is as tall as Johan

Comparison 2: Maria may be taller than Johan

Combined: Wrong: Maria is as tall, if not taller than Johan Correct: Maria is as tal I as, If not taller than Johan

9.

Unnecessary Repetition

Many verbs express the general idea of more or less within their specific meaning. If a verb implies the idea of more, it is unnecessary to repeat this idea by adding the word more to the sentence. 21

Wrong: The store raised the cost by ten dollars more

ｃｯｭｾ｣ｴＺ＠ The stcre raised the cost by ten dollars.

I 0.

Correct Usage

There are six verbs that cause problems Indonesia correct usage because their meaning 'lfe similar and some of their forms are irregular. Three of these verbs (sit, lie, and rise) are never followed by a direct object and are never Indonesia the passive form. The other three verbs (set, lay and raise Oare followed by direct objects and can be passive forrnn

Wrong: The campers got up as soon as the sun had raised Correct: the campers got up as soon as the sun had risen

20

Ibid, p. 271-282

21 _{!hid, p. 284-288}

22

23

B. ERROR ANALYSIS

It is unavoidable that a learner makes errors in his language learning process It will always occur although the best effort has been done. Making errors can be regarded as an essential part of learning, as proverb says, " we

can learn rhrough our errors".

Errors have played an important role in the study of language acquisition in general and examining second and foreign language acquisition in particular. Students made errors do not mean a failure or inadequacy bd learner can view them as important evidence or strategies or procedures imployed. In other words, errors give sign lo teachers and researchers how the target language learning is successfully achieved.

According to H. Douglas Brown: "As Corder (1997; 167) noted: f\

learners errors ... are significant in [that] they provide to the researcher evidence of ho\'1 language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the discovery oflanguage .

Pit Corder stated:

lt is on the basis or information the teacher gels from errors that he varies his leaching procedurios and materials, the pace

or

the progress, and the amount of

23

I--L Douglas Bro\vn, Jlrincip/es ＨｾＡ＠ Lan;.:uage J,ear11l11K and Teaching .(Ne\v Jersey : Prerllice

practice, which he plans at any moment. For this reason it

is impo1iant that the teacher should be abie not only to

detect and describe errors linguistically but also

understand the psychological reasons for their

z,1 occurrence.

The study of Jeuners' errors is called error analysis. It is a way of looking at the errors made by the learner of a target language. Since the

analysis is based oh factual data of learners' errors. It is a procedure, which is

usually, used by language teachers and researchers, which covers sample

collection, identification of the sample, error explanation error classification

that are based on the cause of errors and evaluation of errors.

Rod Ellis said:

Typically this involves the collection of samples of

classroom learner-language (usually written and usually

discrete, decontextualised utterances), the classification

of errors according to the ､ｩｦｾ･ｲ･ｮｬ＠ levels of language

description, the explanation ol' cttors by reference to

vari-0us learning process and the evaluatidn of errors for

the -purposes of assessment of remediation. 25

To know further about error analysis, the study will disct1ss the

following area:

2

·' S. Pit. Corder, ＱｾＭＭｲｲｯｲ＠ Atut!J•sis atul J111er/a11g11age, (London: Oxford U1'1lversity Press, 1981). P.35

25 _{R.od Ellis, l•.'rror Anaf.rsis, (London:}

25

1. The Definition and Types of Error Analysis

There are several opinions given by some linguists to get clear understanding about error. Dullay et al defined error as " flawed side of learner speech of writing. They are those parts of conversation or composition that deviate from selected norm of mature language perfonnance. "26

Pit Corder said: "... the term erroneous to mean other superficially deviant or inappropriate in terms of the target language grammar ... " 27

Then, Douglas Brown said: ,. Put in another way, an error 1s a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar or a native speaker, reflecting ｴｨｾ＠

'8

language competence of the learner."·

Sridhar stated: " Error, on the other hand, are systematic, consistent

d cv1ances stage o! Jearmng. • . ' . "J9

Jn addition, Henry Guntur Tarigan and Djago Tarigan said :

... , kesalahan disebalAan faktor kompetensi. Artinya s1swd memang IJclum memahami sistem linguistik bahasa yang digunakan. Kesalahan biasanya terjadi sccara konsisten, jndi sccara sistematik ,,Jo ( ... Error is caused by a competence factor. It means that the students have not understood the use or the target

26

Dullay ct al. /,anguage lirn (New York, Oxford Universities Press, I %2 ),p. I 38

27

J.P.ll. Allen aod S. Pi! Corder (cd), Techniques i11 Applied l.i11g11islics (London: Oxford University Press, I 974 ) vol .3, p. I 22

28

1-f. Douglas Brown. Op. Cit, p. 165

29

Jacek Fisiak (ed), Ｈｾｯｮｲｲ｡ｳｴｨ･＠ Linguistics and the La11g111.Jge l'eacJ11!r, (England: Perga1non

Press ltd , I 981) p. 224

30

language linguistic system yet. Error usually happens consistently. Thus, it does systematically)

From the opinions above it can be concluded that error, which each linguist explains is something to do with unacceptable and inappropriate forms of the grammar of the target language and the competence of the second language learner.

Error ｩｾ＠ usually compared with mistake. Both of them indicate that forn1 or structure that the learner used is unacceptable and inappropriate according to the native speaker. We should distinguish errors from mistake in language learner." Mistakes are inconsistent deviation caused by performance factors, e.g.; the slip of tongue.

According to Corder "Mistake refers to a perfonnano;e error such as a fatigue and inattention, while the error itself is one caused by lack of language rule knowledge (competence factor) or systematic deviation due to the learner is still developing knowledge of the second language rule s.ystem.31 Mistake (the error of performance; will characteristically be unsystematic.

Pramono said: " it has no significant pedago,gical implication". 32The learners are normally capable of recognizing and correcting such as lapses nr

.ii Dullay et al. Op. Cit. p. U9

27

mistakes, which are not the result of a deficiency in competence but the result of imperfection in the process of producing speechH

The errors are systematic. It is natural for the learners to make errors; even many native speakers make many mistakes in speaking.1·1 The errors are

necessary part of learning language and the process of leading to the errors is clearly a creative one. Errors also believed lo be an indicator of the learners' stage in their target language development and it can determine their level 'Jf mastery of language system.

Relating lo students' error there is error analysis. To understand about the meaning or error analysis some authors have de lined it

S. Pit Corder said:

But because the emphasis in 'error analysis', has, till now, been almost wholly concerned with the practical objectives of planning remedial syllabuses and devising appropriate techniques of 'correction', it too has suffers from similar inadequacies as a technique for describing the learner's 'eta! de dialecte', as proliciency test.35

Jn addition, Henry Gunlur Tarigan and Djago Tarigan said:

Melalui kegiatan pengkitjian kesalahan itu dapat diungkapkan berbagai ha! mengenai kesalahan berbahasa yang dibuat atau dilakukan oleh siswa. Hal-hal yang

JJ l-1. Douglas Bro\vn . ()fJ.(:il. p. l 70

34

dimaksud antara lain latar belakang, sebab musabab dan ragam kesalahim. Pada gilirannya, hal itu dapat d1gunakan sebagai umpan balik dalam penyempumaan atau perbaikan pengajaran bahasa. (Through error analysis it can be found background, causes and types f error made by the students. In turn, it can be used as a feedback in correcting and planning language teaching, especially m planning remed:al teaching).36

It is clear that error analysis is used as an instrument for evaluating teaching process and remedial activities conducted.

Errors are divided into "transfer error, analogical error and teaching-induced error". These three types of errors are viewed from the psychological process in acquiring a second language.

a. Transfer Error is error because of interference from a mother tongue. A student that has not known the rules of the target language will use the same rules as he obtained in his native language. S. Pit Corder stated:" It is clear that on Ihis theory the making of errors is an inevitable, even perhaps a necessar;1 part of the learning process. It also accounts llir ti· e similarity of many errors to the forms or the mother tongue, we can call these transfer error"37

J(i l--Ien1y Guntur Tarignn and Djago ·rarigan, OpC'it. P- 75

37

29

b. Analogical Error is error because of misconception in applying the rules of the target language. As S. Pit Corder stated:

"However, even hhen a learner has discovered a correct rule he may still continue to make errors because he has not yet discovered the precise set of categories to which the rule applies. Errors of this sort

f I. . I . I ' 1X

are errors o over genera 1zat1on or ana og1ca errors. · ·

c. Teaching Induced Error is error that has something to do with the methods or materials of the teaching. Pit Corder stated:

There is a third type of error whicJ, is more dif11cult to establish in any particular case, namely errors arising from the methods or materials used in the teachiPg ... Only this class of error, teaching induced error, is avoidable or redundant and represents in efficiency in the I earrnng-tcac 11ng process.· . I . 19

2. The Sources and the Goal of Error Analysis

The Sources of errors can be divided into two types. First, errors caused by the interference of the learner's mother tongue, which are called Interlingual. Henry Gunlur Tarigan stated: " a) Kesalahan antar bahasa (interlanguage errors), yaitu kesalahan yang disebabkan ofeh interferensi bahasa ibu sang siswa terhadap bahasa kedua yang dipelajarinya"·IO

38

Ibid 39

Ibid .

411

Second,

ｉｮｴｲ｡ｬｩｮＱｾｵ｡ｬ＠

errors which reflect the learners competence at a

particular stage and illustrate some of the general characteristic of language

acquisition.

It

is relate to a specific interpretation of the target language,

which is

ＱＱＱ｡ＱＱｩｆｾｳｴ･､＠

as universal phenomena. They include generalization

(over-generalization and

ignorance of rule restrictions), incomplete

application of rules and false concept hypothesis.

Jack

C.

Richards stated in his book: " An examination of the errors .

suggests that intralingual errors are those, which reflect the general

characteristics of rule learning, such as faulty generalization, incomplete

application of rules, and failure to learn conditions under which rules apply.

11

On the other hand, Brown ( 1987) divides sources of errors based on the

backgrounds that underline them, into four types.

J11terli11gual Tramfer

is

interference from the native language or second language when he is

attempting. Once learners have begun to acquire parts of the new system.

b1t.raling11a/ Tram/er Ge11eralh11rimr,

within the tar»et

_c

language

1s

manifested and a third major is source of error is the

Context of Leaming.

Context refers for example, to the classroom with its teacher and its materials

in this case of school learning or the social situation in the case of

ｵｮｴｵｾｯｲ｣､＠

second language learning.

Com1111m1mtio11 Strategy

is the fourth source or

31

errors. It actually includes the former three sources as a learner tries to get a

I d -I'

n1essage across to a 1carcr or rea er.

-The goal of error analysis is for prag111atic use. According to Corder, crrcr

analysis has two functions " the first is a theoretical one and the second is a

practical one .. u The most practical use of the analysis of error is for the

teacher. It is for feedback value in designing pedagogical material and

strategies. Sujoko in his book Error Analysis wrote:

... Because (i) errors provide feedback, they tell

the teacher something about the effectiveness of his

teaching technique, (ii) show him what parts of the

syllabus he has been following have been inadequately

learned or taught and need further attention, (iii) they

enable hi111 to decide whether he must devote more time

to the item he has been working on, (iv) they provide

the information for designing a remedial syllabus or a

program of re-teaching. ,,H

It is a part of methodology of investigating the language learning process that

has a feedback to both descriptive linguistics and psycholinguistics.

42

H. Douglas Brown, Op. Cit. p. t77-183 43

S. Pit Corder, Op. Cit. p. 45

A. RESEARCH c'vlETHODOLOGY

1. The Purpose of Research

The purpose of the research in this "skripsi" is to know the common

error that made by the participants of the TOEFL test in the structure section

of the TOEFL. Because so many students find it difficult lo complete structure

section of the TOEFL. So the writer hopes it can enhance the writer's

knowledge in English and also help the teacher and learner to improve their

English proficiency.

2. Time and Location

As stated in Chapter One on the method of study, besides library

research a field research was also conducted. The field research

ｳｴ｡ｲｴｾ､＠

from

October 2003 up to January 2004.

It

was conducted by using participants'

work on TOEFL test, which held from June to September 2003 at The Center

for Languages and Culture.

3. Technique of Sample Taking

In this research, the writer took the population from the participants of

number or the participants is 80. In this research 30 students or the population

were taken randomly

4. Techniqnc of Data Collecting

In collecting data, the writer use a question ｳｨ･ﾷｾｴ＠ and student's answer

or the TOEFL test to be analyzed.

5. Technique of Data Analysis

In this part, the data or the studrnt's error in slructurc were analyzed.

The analysis is focused on the skill tested on structure and written cxpressien.

First, idcntirication or recognition of error. In this step, the items were

classified into each type or skill area that tested. The frequency of error of

each items were classified into each items.

The frequency of errors was calculated with statistical method. She

uses the relative frequency distributions, which the formula is:

I) =

ｾ＠

x l 00 0 ' ,;, N

P = percentage

F =Frequency or error occurred

1. Data Descriptions

As the writer has mentioned in the preceding chapter that this "skripsi" discussed on the errors done by the participants of the TOEFL test. To get data she took the question sheet and students' answer to be analyzed. The lest covered 9 skill areas, which are broken down into 40 items. The following table is the classification of each items based on its ski hi areas.

Table I

Structure Items and Its Distributions

No Sldll Area Item

Number

of Items - - - · - - - -Subject and Verb 5, 7, 9, I I, 15, 17

2 Verb Agreement, Tense and j 19

Form

3 Full Subordination 1, 6, 8

4 The Verbal 4, 10, 13,21,22,26,29,31

5 Pronoun Form, Agreement,

!

16, 20, 25, 35 Reference

6 Word Form

24,27,28,30,32,34,37,40

7 Word Order 3, 12, 14, 38

8 Parallel Structure

139

6

3

8

4

8

4

5

9

ｾｃｯｲｲ･｣ｴ＠

Usage

L

8, 23, 33, 36

I 0 Unnecessary Repet1lion

j

[image:40.595.75.489.214.598.2]

36

[image:41.595.88.477.101.603.2]

b. Verb Agreement, Tense and Form

Table Ill

Frequency of Error

T---

---111tcm

Frequency l'crccntagc

of Error

of Error

'---__J _______________________ --ＭＭｾＭＭＭ ｾＭＭＭＭｾＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭ ｾＭＭＭ ﾷＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭ

Ｏｴｾｯ＠

Skill

Arca

2

Verb Agreement, Tense, 19

6

19.99

The item is about verb agreement, tense, and form. From the table

above it is shown that there are only

6

students or

(19.99 %)

from

30

samples who made error in this item.

c. Full Subordination

Table IV

Frequency of Error

/ No- Skill

Arca

Item

Frequency of

ｐ･ｲ｣･ｮｴ｡ｧｾＭｾ＠

Error

Error

-

--·-3

Full Subordination

I

4

13.33

6 10 _33.33

8 6 _19.99

4 students (13. 33 %) who made error in item I, 10 students (33. 33 %) in

item 6 and 6 students (19.99 %) in item 8. On the a.verage there are 22.22 % of students who chose the wrong answer.

d. The Verbal

[image:42.595.73.468.187.542.2]

Table V

Frequency

of

Error

No Skill Area

ｬｴ｣ｾＭｔＭｆｲ｣ｱｵ･ｮ｣ｹ＠

of

Percentage

of

Error

I

!Error

1 - - - 1 - - - + - - - ＡＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾﾷＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭ

4 The Verbal 4 6 19.99

10 11 36.66

13 21 69.99

21 10 10

26

16 53.33

?9 15 49.99

31 15 49.99

In those verbal items, many students made error in this skill area.

It was described by the table above that 43.33 % students made errors. There are 6 students ( 19. 99 % ) who made error in item 4, l I students

38

item 21 and 22, 16 students (53.33 %) in item 26, and 15 students (49.99 %) in item 29 and 31.

e. Pro1101111 1-/Jrm, Agreement, and Reference

Tallie IV

Frequency of Error

Frequency of Percentage

Error of Error

...

··---5 Pronoun Form 16 12 39.99

20 9 29.99

25 4 13.33

35

13 ·f3.33

Total

4

38 24.99

[image:44.595.69.455.88.569.2]

Table VII Frequency of Error

- - - -

-No Sk ill Arca Item Frequency of Percentag c of

Error Error

· - - - · -·

6 Wo rd Form 24 14 46.66

27 11 36_66

28 13 43.33

30 19 63.33

32 11 36.66

34 15 49.99

37 25 83.33

40 15 49.99

ＭＭＮＭＭｾﾷＭ

-Total 8 123 51.24

- ---·

40

g. Word Order

Table VIII

Fre11uency of Error

No Skill Area Item Frequency of Percentage of

Error Error

ｾＭＭＭ［ＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＱＭＭＭＭｲＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭ

7 Word Order 0

6 19_99

.)

12 12 63.33

14 14 69.99

38 13 _43.33

Total 4

59

49.1 (i

ｾＭＭＭＭＭＭﾷＭＭＭＭＭＭｾﾷＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾＭＭＭＭＭＭ ＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾ＠

In word order item, there are 6 students (19.99 %) who made error in item 3, 12 students (63-33 %) in item 12, 14 students (69.99 %) in item 14, and 13 students (43.33 %) in item 38. So in the average there are

49

_I 6

students who chose the wrong answer [image:45.595.69.450.96.632.2]

g. Parallel Structure

Table IX

Frequency of -Error

N Skill Area Item . Fi·c11uency of Percentage

0 Error

of Error

ｾＭＭＭＭＭＭＭ

8

Parallel

Structure 39 12 39_99

- - · - · - ＭＭＭｾＭＭ · ·

-Tutal 1

12

39.99

(39. 33 %) from 30 samples made error in this area.

[image:46.595.72.448.151.543.2]

It. Correct Usage

Table X

Frequency of Error

［［［Ｚｾ［ﾷ＠

1·

Freq uen:;

ｾＭｦｾ＠ ＭＭｬｾ･ｲ｣･ｾｾｴｧ･＠

:r-Error Error

- - - ＭＭＭＭｾ＠ - - - - -- --- -

--2 11 36 66

I

No Skill Arca

9

ｲ･Ｚｾ［［ｾｾ［ＭｾｾｾＭｾｾｾＭＭＭ

--,

18 13 43.33

8 26.66

11 36.66

36 19 36.66

41.33

In correct usage item it can be seen that 11 students (36.66 %)

42

3.

Data Interpretation

[image:47.595.77.450.191.552.2]

After classifying the items into each structure skill area and explaining the frequency of error in each item, the writer tries to interpret the data. The following table (table XI) describes the problem area along with the frequency of error, arranged from the highest to the lowest.

Table XI

r---

- -·-·

No

Skill Arca

Frc11 ucncy of

i'ercentagc of

Error

Error

-Word Form 123 51.24

2

Word Order 59 49.16

3 The Verbal 104 43.33

4 Correct Usage 62 41.33

5 Subject and Verb 68 37.77

6 Parallel Structure 12 39.99

7 Pronoun Form 38 24.99

8 Full Subordination 20 22.22

9 Verb Agreement, Tense and form 6 _{l 9.99}

anyone word classs (part of speech) into the other two word classes, which arc divided into three groups: noun forming suffixes, verb forming sunlxcs, and adjective forming sunlxes. So we must recognize whether the word use in the wrong word form on the basis of a word's function in a sentence. So th<1t the students made error in this item because they li.iund dirtlculties in answer this item.

On word order items, where there were 49.16% who made error in this item. Students found difllculties because they are &sked to correct the sentence relate to word order of subject and verb. In word order, the core parts (S

+

V +O ) is in•/erted and the verb placed before the subject. The students got confused to find when are inversions used in a sentence.

On the verbal item, there were 43.33 % who chose wrong answers. In .this item Verbal divided into three types: verbal noun (gerund), verbal adjective (reducing adjective clause), and verbal phrase (reducing sub-ordinate clause). The students found difficulties to recognize the three types of verbal in a sentence.

44

On parallel structure items, 39.77 % students chose wrong answers.

Because on parallel structure, it is good when all the parts of a series in a

sentence have the same grammatical form and function. It means that the

students just consider to the sentence that contains a series.

More over, on pronoun form items 24.99 % of the students were 1nade

errors. They are still confused to identify the pronoun form, agreement, and

pronoun reference in the sentence.

While, on full subordination there were 22.22 % who chose wrong

answers. Students still confused to chose the mtroductory word, or

subordinate conjunction, or relative pronoun which missing from the stem.

Finally, on the verb agreement, tense and fonn there were only 19.99

% of students who chose the wrong answers. It is the lowest frequency of error because verbs are the most complex part of speech in English. They can

take many different forms and functions in many different ways. So the

students have to identify the controlling subject and the verbs, which agrees

A. Conclusion

Based on the data analysis and the discussion in the previous chapter, the

writer would like to conclude that on the

a

1erage is more than 40% of students made

error in the nine skills of structure and written expression a:reas, where the highest

frequency of error is made in word form items (51.24 %), while the lowest frequency

of error is made in the verb agreement, tense, and form item (22.22 % ). It means,

that word form is the most difficult item than others which needs more emphasis and

attention in the teaching learning-process.

B. Suggestion

The writer would like to give some suggestion to improve Eii'\5h

proficiency, especially on structure as an important skill in English language learning: ··

1. It necessaiy for student to do more exercise in structure to improve their English proficiency.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, J. P. B, and S Pit Corder, Technique in Applied Ung11istics, London: Oxford University Press, 1974, Vol. 3.

Bell, Roger T., An Introduction to Applied Ung11istics: Approach and Method in J,ang11age Teaching, J,ondon : Eastford Academic and Education Ltd, 1981, first Edition.

Brown, H. Douglas, Principle of J,angiwge !,earning and Teacfung, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1980.

Corder, S. Pit, Hrror A11,!/ysis and /111er/a11g11age, New York: Oxford University Press, l 98 5.

Dullay et all, /,ang11age J\rn, New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Ellis, Rod. Ca/ssroom Second J,ang11age Development: A S111dy of Classroom Interaction and f,m1g11age Acquisition, England: Pergamon Press Ltd, 1984. Fisiak, .Jacek, C'onlraslive Li11g11islics and !he /,anguage Teacher, England: Pergamon

Press, 1981.

Geofrey et all, Teaching fo'ngfish as Foreign f,anguage, London:Tj Press Ltd, l 980 Hanner, Jeremy, Teaching and /,earning Grammar, London : Longman, 1989

King, Carol and Nancy Stanley, Hui/ding Skills For Ille ｔＰＯｾＱＧＡＬＬ＠ UK: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1989, Second Edition.

Krashen, D.Stephen, Principles and Practice in Second f,a11g11age Acquisition, New Yprk: Pergamon Press Ltd, 1982

Moreno, Harriet et al, TOJo'FL, USA: Arco Publishing Company, 1977

Rogers, Bruce,

77Je Complete Guide to

lOE/•1,, Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1993. Shanna, SK,

Error Analysis: Why and How?,

Eanglish Teaching Forum, April 1982,

Vol.XXX.

Sujoko,

Error Analysis,

Surakarta FKIP Universitas Sebelas Maret, 1999 Swan, Michael,

Practical English ll.mge,

Oxford University Press, 1972

Tarigan, Henry Guntur and Djago Tarigan, ｬＧｾｮｧ｡ｪ｡ｲ｡ｮ＠

Analysis Berhahasa,

Bandung: A.ngkasa, 1988, Cet. Ke -10.