ttafr.. Plstaka
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D.ygF.t E. dan Hajl. H. {2m11. ttew (nou/tsdgr€ and Micfo-bilt Onir Oganiration: t{nll rni,s ot Praclic€ as A Oav€locns ft"dE.foft'. Proceodtngs al tha 31th Hawai ktonatioa.t Cor*dB on Syslerns S(ir@-
Haddo, F.M. (2003). firrnbrngun Xonunitas p/i,^t ti:
Llstitul,/'iKeseniangrn D!/lia Pat /'da, Dun a &:rris. Insut l T*&adSandung.SernitotaRtsetdanTek otogi
Htilf\ P (2000). "coflnn|,ities of Practice in the oislritubd tfinfnd Envimnment' .hmat of f\nowtedge Managenar, at!Iz-38.
Kr.r. I {2000). ttanagertutt ot t&ndogr fhe Xoy b CnFlcr6s ard|ltain Opatbn. Mccrdwfi i|.Ecton.
f,ofF, S€nin, n Jt]/i 2f/02, Mun Na Atuaa I']ntary tl Ie,,4idkdonesia.
lcrFr Selasa. 28 A{uslE 2m1 8arg6€ ,ndmos,b nrus ,(d!itEr&lbnr 8€rrDyasi
l-..6!. EI dan Slord( J. Pml). 'Cofiunities ol plr trc! fI Ogai*d Perlomanc€'.3|tqdsn|sJoun,,aqa), Ai.O{1.
r|d)cno( R. (21X10). (r'ori,S ,r Conurxmtyj r0 Cdbd &/cc6.s Fe h Building @twfifbotPradie. L€vetalit9 t(uda6.
o|*:
P&. e 0S7). 'Designing Knd{edg€ Eco6Ftemstorco nuntiB dg ', Ptoceedngs d AdrdEing O'gankaliord C.pabry Ve XM Ma n agensn,L(f, ,dlry.Jtos. S€ptemb€r2gXl.
Rid OSn€, Senin, 4 ffirri &. Dirua hdust i Jaga Jsdt pe&n$d Uriversitas.
S*ya El' (2003). 'Sritem tbsioia, hovrsf. Semitoto Ris{t &n Tekdqi Keia sama Kemedian Ris€t dan Tetnotogi Rt deng$
8eed. Kota Cilegon.
$teli'ajeDen Tefnifhdrlti hsli&l T€kDlogi Brdong (2$3).
l&hft, ssoDrortr 'l.,!.n Kot''ll'l'|,itasryal. (Coatnw*
ofEry0dan DuniaP6R i (tffid d Miff') rang lte.lriptul
&ffias RanLi lflai AWsr, nbd dan Fd{et'ber{s, ftrld6rPrE 9, lap(rrnlEi.
Abctract
fuh$6 ot runicipat sdit waste !hmi! rd naragement (MSWPIV) in developing countac ile rulble and intenelated. The rBture ol these prctbrE has trce major implications. Fhst, the convenlird aogldr $/ith its focus oo cdlection, tmnspotffii, and &posal activities and ib pdmary goal ol tedrbl eftjerrcy in seNice povision b no longer apprcFi*.
Sesd, involvement and pa icipalion from vairu ad06other lhan he localwasb authorilies is cafiedh.
Partnerships of stakeholders in MSWPM ale necessary Thid, $e increasingly complex bc:s assabted wilh MSWPM and the inability d tt cmIentional appoach b deal with lhem lead blE rucessity of an integrated 4pmadr to MS{IP|| h devehping counties.Ihk p€per is the fitst olholab.
h tfs part, a oncepfual of ar integrated sofid 6 dariE and management ([ISWPM) for d€cqaE cqrties is forirulded. Any integralod app.0dr b resorrces and envitonmental planning end
management efl$odies two basic dimensions:
substantiE ai Focedural. The kner can be characterized by hrr main attrihrb$ lE[slic, inter' connective, god qiented, and s@ld Thus, the proposed fraoE{ork suggesls that integraled municipal solil de planning and olanagemenl is holistic when itlales into accountvaixrs perspectives, such as public d environmenbl health, physical, technical, sociaucultural, economical/financial, inslitulional and managerial, polithal. ad legal: inlel- conneclive as it b based on inletadixE among lour main comporcds: activities, acbrs (stakeholde6), options, and qects (perspeclivesl goal oriented through tE i,q{fication of coflim goals among siakehokh6:adsfategicwlEnitile lieskeyissues associated wlh cte generalbl, surce separation, seflice pro{isin, composting, sotlg and recyding, and safe drs@.
K€ywords: ru*ipd solid m6b management, dev€hDrnEn,cuxepfrJalft netiott
r.l il i 23
I.INIRODUCTION l.1.8aclground
Plaftring and managemenl of municipal solid waie (MSW) arc anong fE mosl ciallenging tasks laced by urban governrnenls jn developing countries (Scllerlenleib andlref er, 1992a). irunicipal solit €ce has nany impacls m uban envioomenls and m ubn itf$iElb. Fse|aeb, i{egal&mf,iB of u6sb o draiE and riwrs b common in rnany de|€qi{
counfies and res{rlls in polbled at, and slrbce r{
orouod ralerslpplres.
ProblenE relaled toplafi ing and manag€mentof Liv in de{eloping countdes are being exacedated bt a numbetof lactors, including urbanizalion (Gotoh, lS);
ouanoand Ogawa, | 993), populalioo gfourr (Sa!&{
1990: Ariosorof, '1991),
industdalization lo hore economic growh (ESCAP, 1993i Orano and ogm, 1993; liruttamara, '1994),
improved living sbndaG (Ouam and Ogana, 1993; Mutlamra, 1994), ard lE incr€ased availaulity of @nsurDer poduds (q|fD and Ogawa, 1993). nrc intenelaltorrships of !E faclors bdng Sout several consequences, ildfE tE iru€ating @dimdsolid wasb. fE irlq?aiE nunber oh'€ople d€{rEnding service, a motr corTh(
natun of waste being generated, difficufiies h profdk€ ceoioe dre b iqr/8ter s€fl|€medr, ad tE pressure io provide satisfaclory seryice. These issrs have rcsulted in lrcmendous pEssurc upon mri(iEl gor€mments of develodng countries. In respoose,lE intemational community and agencies have M #, experlise, and tunding into assisling deveqiu counties to deal wih municipal solid waste dari{
8nd managems'rt (MSWPM).
In developing /ounties, the conventional apFodr lo MSWPM dofinates. Major characteristics d 0tt eppoach include: he sole responsibility of mu*iEl authorities for providing sorvice (colledin, transpodation ard disposal), a vbw of v,/asb 6 a nuisance to hepublic (Cointreau, 1982), andahqDm aesthetics and tedtnical male6 (Agunwamba, 1998;
Diaz,1998).
Commonshortcomings oltheconver bnalapproach lo MSWPM in developing countnes aE imbility to c{pe with the high rate ot urban grcwth ard development, limited local aulhodties' resources (thlla and Mojani, '1999). lack of interesi on waste rcdudion, recycling, and composling (Agunwamba, 1938), ard tack ofpublic participation (Soe4ani, '1984i
Silas and Indrayana, '| 993; Sinha. 1993).
Reognizing fE inappropriatenefs d tE conventional approach to MSWPM in develoting counldes, other approadEs are necessary Ttp app.oaches have been explored. These approadps are the non- coryedjorElapp.oacl (Fur€dy, lSlb, 1992) end ltr€
integrated approach (Erbel, 1 982).
The non-conventional approach is Fopced by Furedy ( 1994b) as an altem€tiw to lh€ convldimd aooroaci ful nas been comrnor y used h ||Ery develqtng counties. She poinled oul that he m-t goals of this altemative approach were bas€d ql sociat ano ecological objeclives. Empidcal finils about his approach are hddng.
While lhe non-conventional apprcadl b .elatively new, lhe integrated approach has lot{ ieq| known (Eftel, 1982), bul il only has gained momstn recenfly. This approach has been advocated by |r|fiy as a better approach to deal with urban sdd ftmagement in developing counfies (Agunwamb, lgB;Ati, Oltey and Cotton, 1998; Campbell, 1999; Hah ad Mojani, 1999;
Hoornn eg and Thomas, 1999). fhe integraled approach is also viewed as a nllisectoral or comprcheNive apprcach because a*s into accounr many contibul*E lactors to tE Flbb|ts, and involves stakeholdeE fto.n different s€do.s (Ouano and Ogawa, '1993i
Furedy, 1995).
The int8grated approach has beet hledigated in this research as an appropriate way b affess lhe complex pmblems of MSWPM in developi4arfies. Asimple but valid aeuflEnt for the neces$y d fie integrated approadr is SEt no single aclor c agBnization can alone solve fB complex prcbbns d |trunicipal solid waste. Ile sdrit of parlnership drmted by this
apprcach ts very importanl lor addtessrng vam6 problems ol IIISWPM in developing counlr€s Based on their work on solid waste rnanagemenl in Asb, Hoornweg and Thomas (1999, 1) conclud€d llat
"Municipal governments are usually lhe tespdrslde agency for solid wasle colleclion and disposal, b|t lE rnagnitude of lhe problem b rcll beyond the dility of any munictpal govemment. They need heb. ln #td|
to oth€r levels of govern nent, businesses zd lE g€neral community need b be more involved n rde manag€menl."
l:. Re€€€.ch QuesttuEad Obj€ctve5 Notwithstanding the promising lote0tial ot tE
integrated approach, research aboul and praclice dtE integrated approach in developing counlies haveb€en scarce. This may be due b problems discoYet€d by several investigatoG, sudr as the technocraL ad dminisbative actions taken by muni.jpal dcbb (Furedy, 1989a; Diaz, 19{tr) and the oppcilin of municiml officials to invdve the infotrnal se(b, in pariiqrlar waste pickers (Furedy, '1989a; OnaD, '1991b). lt is necessary to extend and de€?e{l qr understanding about the potential ol this apFEdr in developing countries, both conceptually and prdially.
As in other developing counties, Indonesia has abo hced similar problems and drallenges in plamir€ and namging municipal solid waste. ln fis EsFct, Hoornweg and Thomas (19n, 1)stated lhal'Ldqtsia ard $|e Philippines as rvellas parts of Chim and tdia are f|e Asia counlies hcjng the greatecl raste management challenge, based on projeded waste generation rates and relawe affluence lo deallvih lhe Foblem."
One major research queslbn pertaining lo tE pobntial of integcbd dflnl€ snd ren8qsns{ d flrn*ipal solid waste in develodng muntdes in gqE|al was defin€d as to0ows: '!ttsta$ he sitiaal elgtE||6 d an inbgrai,ed municipal solid wast€ plannhs aod rrE| ageflrent (lirsll,Pil) apprcr&tt in da|th0hg
counlrEs?" The main objeclive of t|6 research is lo propose a conceptual fiamewo ol IMSWPM for developrng counkies.
2, Formulating the Conceptua,l Framework of
rirswPM
The lileraturc.eview on inlegraled rcsource and enviroflnental glanning and managenenl has shown thal any conceptual framewo* ol htegraled planning and management should have ho basic elements:
substance and Drocess (Slocombe. 1993, 1998; Born and Sonzognr, 1995: Margenr ad Bom, 1995:
Margerum, 1997). Therefore, lheFQosed conc€ptual fram€wo lor IMSWPM will be b.sed on these key characterislics.
21. SllDstadivr DirneEions otmwP
The substantjve dimensions ol inlegraled plan ning and management arc charactedzed by four elemenls:
holistic, interconnective, goal od6|bd. and strategic of reductive (Bom and Sonzogni. 1995: Margerum and Bom, 1995; Maqerum, 1997).IlEs€ dimensions are incorporabd in lh€ proposed comeFlal {tamework lor lMSWPli,l in developing coufltiE.
2.1 .'l . Holistic
The holistic nature of inlegaH planning and management is reflected hrough lhe breadlh and vadety ol perspectives included (t aq, 1986a, 1986b1 Mitchell, 1990b; Bom and Sonzogi, 1995; Margerum and Bom, 1995; Margerum, 1994. In other words' integrated planning and niinagement is multl- dimensional o( systems oriented (Slommbe, 1993). In the context of municipal soli, ri6te planning /and management in developing comties, lhe nature'of a holistic vierv is based on 0E Erious prot?lems, conrtcints. and conllicts lhat necessitale considemtion ot a broad rang€ ot aspec,ts. The summary of pmblems, const*ds, ard conflicts in the liteEtue Eview Doints to t€ needlotake into account rzitrEffi ves. $chsFa5attd€nvironmental
health, physical, lechnical, social/cullural, economi€l/financaal, inslitulional and managerial.
political. and legal.
LIZ |risrconngctive
I|€ hMive nahrc ol inhgrated plaoning ad managernenl lMi€s lhe o€cessity ol eradti4g l{e{rdaroaships aarong raalus conponenls d lhe system being adftess€d (Sloconbe, 1993; liiuleF Medad\'1994: Bom and Sonzogni, 1995; Margerwl and Bom, 1995; l4aEerum, ,|997). In the conbd ol fi SWPI in derclogr€ {ornkies, 0ris fea&{€ cals h a need to identty he componenb of lMSWPMand tEi interielationshi)s. FouI rnain componenls of lMSWPll are adivities, aclors (slakeMders), options, a|j aspeds (perspectives).
Any discussion about municipal solid waste plaming and managenE lt (MSWPM) camot be separdted fum associaled adivities, induding waste gens?tix!
source separation and slorage, collection, tsanspofttion rih or ni0nut tansfer, Focessing d t€atnent, ari disposal (Cointeau, 198q Godr, '1989;Tdrobarrglous,Th€isen endMgil, 1993).
Conoeming f|e ;dou orsbfeholders in n6viFtl, Fonande (i993) proliffi a generic list of slakeholders rcgarding solil waste policy and adion. They include cental govemr|enl, munidpal gor€mmenl pdvale solid waste hrin€s€e6, Fivate indusfy, cornrnunity organizations, non-governmental o{ganrzations (national scope), waste pickeF, itinerant buyeF, households, individual collectors, and
sdrools. AnottEr stakehoHer nlD stpuld be added b his lisl b t|e tcr€ign ag€ncies which hav€ also boen involved in MSWPM in developing counlries. All these stakeholders can be calegorized into five gmups:
govemmeni inslitulions or
depadmenls (ministies). lhe private s€dot individuals, non{ovemmenlal organizattons (NGos). and loreign agencies.
The proposed IMSWPM for develodng counlries anvolves oplions. such as reduc€. t€!se, source separation. recovery and recycling, co.ngosling, and disposal. Due b ls oalute, hazatdolrs waste is not included in lhe detuilion of solid waste in f ssludy.
Regarding lhe aspects to be consid€@d in IMSWPM, lhe holistic natfe of IMSWPM has hdicated the variorrs peisledives io b€ taken inb @unt, suci as public ard enyimenhl healn, phF*r, tectMical, social and culfu.al, economical a.d financial, inslilutional and mamgedal, polilical, ad legal. Figure 'l shows the general relationship6 of lhe four cornponeris of lli'lSlYPM in developing countries. ln this figure. activities
become tE centre ofthe relaliocships among
l h e c o m p o n e n t s becaEe lhey cover
w a s t e t r o m generataon lo
ds0osal.
The Drooosed conceplual lrarnework lor IMSWPM for developrng countries is based on activaties and oplions (see'Iable 1). The apprcpmte opllons lo wasle geoeraton are inilialives lor reduction and reuse ol materials which otheMis€ will become wasle. The signilicance of lhese two optiol|s has been lecognEed worldrvide (Wilson. 1 996). The main obiective 0l l€st€
reducton and reuse iniliatives is to reduce lhe amount olwaste generated, and to reduce waste managenent
@sls.
Ile appropriate oplions forwste handling and stonge at source and colleclion of rasle are separation of vJaste into dry and wet curstituents, reclvery of v:aluable materials, in padiqbr the inorganic steam, srmfscale composting al hd6eholds, medjum-scale conposting at community aeas, and reuse of the tecovered materials. Compding at households can be conducted voluntaily. Recovery of matedals at source can Foduce cleanel maledab tlan those sorted at final disposal sites because lhe dEnce for conlaminalion is less. ltinerant buyets used to buy the sepanted matedals from households a barter wilh them lol other products, such as food6 or kids toys. B€skle the F0drclion of deanef fl#ids and the sase in colleclion and dispo6al, s(rrce separation is iltlpo{tant because it nurtures he ssEe of shared{esponsibility, cariE, and participation.
Suihble optionE for processilE of waste arc separatlon and recovery ol tade iio orgaYt ad hoqsnic
slrearfs al lecycling siles, recycling o{ the inorganlc wasle, medium- or lafge-scale composting of the organic wasle by municipal author res or prryate contraclors. and reuse ol compost and aecycled malerials lor va.iqls purposes by users- Waste thal ts neither sent to household or coqnuniiy composting facililies nor s€nt to other use6 is expected lo be delivered to any reclcling site. In addition. the mixed waste lhat is nol separated by waste poducets will also be sent to these sites for separation. Aner separation '
the oqanb msle will be sent to tre medium- or large-scale rnunicipal composling facilities, while the inorgaoic sfeam can either be bleo by waste pickers or be processed as well at hese sites. The residual leff at recycling sites viill be brought to any landfill lor disposal. In someway, tE function of a recycling site is sinilar to thal of a barEfer station in order to lool rdste lrom dlfi€ret{ olilitF, tut with separalion and tecycling added.
In lhe recydirE sites, waste pickers willbe allowed to collect valuaue natedals. In addition, recycling facilities shoub be ptovided by $e govemnpnt, pdvate sector, or other parlies. ln this way, wdsle pickers will not only have deaner matedals hai are more ready t0 be marketed to $?ste brokers, but hey may also have a better chance of receiving a good pdce from their orc(efs-
Dispoul adifties may involve tdo options: landfill and incin€ralbn./TlE lse of simde ard open dumping is not recomnren/ed because of ils twlive impacts br he envionm€t ard udan inhabihnb. Ladfll is prefened to incineralioo because it is dEaper- lblv€ver, in the next foe or len F€rs, incineration mEy be appropriate lor melropolitan or big cities in de'doping countdes because d he pr€ssucs fton fie increasing
AcUlrs (Slakdol&rs):
. I'divih.b . NcOs . Fotlitr Asa$i's
lutivittor:
. Hadlint6ldstoq.
. ColLctbn !d Tcporl.tbn . TlllEf?!(oFnDD . Proc..rrg.dTE ernt . Dispc&l
A{ocL:
. Pdfr &Edined.l H.rlth . PhFi'l
. T6lnic.l . Social&C ul . brinnbd&Mcgrdal . EcorDnic.l &Fiei.l . Polilixl . t g.l
QtiE:
. Soulc S.fdi!
. Rtc},l1ilg . Cornpodilt . Sr& Dirlel
FEU! 1 nE inarclalimshhs d lMStPy. crnpoilnb h d?vrhir.ornries
produclion of waste in urban areas. the limited nomber of landfills available, lhe difliculty in finding landlil sites, and lhe need to djspose ol waste rapidly. In other words, incineralion, currently regarded as inappropriate, may become feasible and approfible in ttre flretopotitan orbig cilies in developing countrils in
$E luture. Th€ model for IMSWPM in devdoping oor|nlr|es, linking aclivdies and options. is shown in Figure 2.
It should be noled that, an the proposed frcmemrk, collection and tansportation aclivities are nol sl|of,/n.
However, they can occur in linking two or |rbre
@mect€d €cli{li€6 16 filenliq€d in lt€ Srcrbus seclion, there are geflerally two
kinds of colleclion: primary aod serondary (lndrayana and Silas, 1993; Silas, 1995). The primary colleclion service is usually provided by local community organizations, while the secondary
colleclion is provided by he local gleansing aulhodtyor he private conlractor (Fotues, 1 995), In the prcposed iiamevi/ork, local community organizations wil be 't6FrEitrle for n{eclirE and tanspofling wasle fom he souce to aoy temporary storage sites or ev€n lo rccov€iy and recycling sites, provided lhat they are capable ol dolng it. lileanwhile, the local dea{6ing aulhority or the pdvate conlractor will colled and banspod waste ftom lemporary storage sites to t€covery and recycling sites and tom recovery and recycling sites to linal disposal siles. In the pmposed fEmework, transfer stalions are also not incolprated because they are optional. In case lransfer slatiorE are used, lhei. main func{ion is to pool waste from various sources, in parlicular temporary storage (disp6al) siles.
2.1.3 Goalodented
Some of the goals of IMSWPM in developing counfies can be inspircd from lhe goals of integrated msle
managemenl an the developed countries and major concerns abolt urban managem€nl in developing counlnes. As menlioned in the lileralure review, some of lh€se goals include reducing the amount of waste g e n e r a l e d a n d d i s p o s e d ; i m p r o v i n g w a s t e managemenl capacily; minirnizi0g environmenlal rmpacls on air. water, and land: mnserving valuable resowces; and environmenlally eohancing wasle disposal mefiods. Eased on thes€ goals and the various problefiE in MSWPM in devdoping countries, lhe proposed goais for IMSWPI\4 in f€se cou ntries are shown ln Table 2.
TaUe 2. C0dnrn gmls ol fiSwptt in developing counbies
r ND[[emg otc crc{rrrrcss !r'l lralft oftbc urtlr cnr . gFllrbingr|r elnUitfi'ofrfi.rlniidanndtq
. PRridi.!.ffcint. cfcdirc. c$nzbb .n Etirt'lc s.dilc . PromatiB r.dB. r.!s, $rcc s.tr.iin ad rcclchB. dnl or,lrlrn|g . Id.dqp.nn.Nlr4rs of sra*.nol'16
' Dcvcl.ti€ thc tucyclint ndnt {rosn rlE irNotrrn,cr or Udh rtrc tbrnEt ind
2.1 .4. Strategk
TtE iiea of a slrategic or reduclionisl approach in hqmted plannfu and managemeni points to focusing on key aspecls, parameters, or areas of the system being analfzed. In lhe context of IMSWPM, fE key issues will be delsmined based on the problems 6sociated with lhe adiulies in municjpal solid t'/aste daning and managemert Oable 3).
In wasle gsEration, two key ksues should be addressed: golrcrnment policy on tiaste reduction and reuse efions, atd public educalion on waste reduction and reuse. Goa€mment policy on rvaste reduction and reuse s impodant to support the rcduction of waste generatd. Ihb ploposal is based on the fact that findings ftom tp iteEture revie[have rarely indic€ted the exislence olcrdr policy. lleleb|E, xraste reduqon and reuse slruld become an agenda of lhe govemment of dewloping counties. ln addition io this policy, pubiic €drcation is also a l(ey ingredient in the success oftvaJe reduction and rcuse hi0atives. public
education is aimed at proviring knowledge, imreasing understanding and a{ateness, and galnlng involvement from lhe public
Key issues associat€d nih rervice Fo'tisin consist of satisf aclory (€fllcient and efiedive) service.public education about the risks of wasle
burning and wasle dumPing to drains, and law enforcern€{ . The provision of satisfactory or efficient and elfective servica is exp€cted to reduce chances of udan residents throwing away their u/aste at illegal places or butning their waste because lhese acts bdng/ about pollution bolh lo the environnlent and the people. In addition/ Public education is also considered as important in ordel to increase the p u b l i c ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d awareness and eventually its willingness nol to do illegal dumtirq
and waste hmhg. Should satisfactory service be provided ard tE public education also be provided' then it will be rccessary lo distourage some urbafl rcsidenls ft!.n&ing these acts by enforcing laws Table 3. f€y bsues in IMSWPM in developing
countt€s.
Froure 2 a concertual lraBework lor lMSvlPM n &.le.g c0uitEs
TL dd. of goecm.r PoltrY h
hidx .&&6 .bdd so@. *rr&on tL. s. dd .nforc.ftd of L*
'li.
r6m of taBfacro.y rft.
tudr db&n abdd th. tuk, of ill.gal dapn€ dd wub
. pr@ !f 6rdi lo build ed opd.L rh. f. ,t!.
! Tll di. of ndkcls fd c.r's6l
C.lirs +@val tm mst$al adrdn'.! ro che3. ft.
dittu3f.r naions ,fr t6oE.y ed 6v.lr.g 'tt s.&c 6.& ro !roh& f..Jrrs ror ftsouc rcou..t ed t&--d Sihits t4Pm is P.n Fckts oEdc rcc@iy .nd cFli'f ew't€t
^rE:bili ol $|fEittt frrdr 'O.6a6of
ndt E fnr.oqo3i
Ii. cicn . of se@d polt t ahod lh. us. ol Aliltbtdrid. atuabb ad errd.bl. 5d.t sir.i-s op.talion l[.r niomus hraxh nsks ro 'hr
Wilh r€gard to source separalio, iwo k€y issues are iden!fied: public educ€tion and bw enforcement. As shom io ItE lit€rature review some urban reslhnts were wuilling to do Source sepa,alion because of he inconwnience (Cohbe3u et al.. '1984; Poerbo, 199'l;
Indrayaoa and Sihs. 1993). Therefore, Mlic educalion about source seFation shouid be conducled wilh urban residenls h arder tg enslre fEi.
ndEsbnding, arareness ari Fdicipation. &Ee F,b[c edrrcation has b€en widdy dducled, ltEn bts t\at make source separalion mardalory should be issued ad enforced.
A fe$/ key issues related b tFusehold arErtr communlly composling include public educath), pfovisionoffunds lobuild and opefab the sites, and tE cteation 0f markels tor compo6t The lindings in tE flevidrs chapter about ho$eldd and comuty cqnpoling in developing countas have hdicakd e lad( of support fo|n UE local cutmuni9 and b.d go/emment (Poerbo, 1991; thdveridge, 1S4.
Desdte t$s facl cqnpoGling duld be promot€d h order to Gduce the amunt of ir* b be disoosed ai also b EDduce na[rd hrtilizer. IlErefore, I argue ftd lublic edlcalroQ on compc${ slil needs b be gqttobd&DtirerkeyiF /€ b UE F!{i€im dn{|Gb
condwl @mpostir€ pllot proiecb for promotim q public educalion and lo build 0|e hfrastruclurc d operate f|e compctlE sites by households a$
coflmunity organizalions. Some frnG will be need€d b flwide facilities br hous€holds and in partioia cornmunily o€anizalins to enatle tlem to do s!I*
scale or medium€calo composlip. fte third and tle op6t dimqll issue b to creat€ ad satain mafteb fo co.npost (Adosoroffand Badone, l$7; Maniatis dd-.
1987iLohani, 1988; Woolveddge, 1994). In IndorEsb, for inslance, this efiorl will be dr&{ed by the use 0f dEmical tertilizer by larmeB hause the use 0f d|€mical fertiliz€r b supporl€d by h€ govemnprt Some amounl of mon€y will b€ n€eded in efforts io fud anddevelop markeb &r ompost
There are several key issues rcgflfrig he opeEtion 0f
recycling sites. The lirst issue is the rced to lobby the local authodties lo allov{ lhe use of lhe exisling kansfer stalions as siles lor sorling waste into lhe organic and Inorgantc streams and for conducting recovery and recycling actjvalies. tuEther important obiective of the lobbying is lo get apgoval for involving $€ste pickers in lhese c€nlres. OEe liis idea is agreed, lhe nexl |ssue is to fird fundir{ h pmvide the lacitities required for soding and rcqdi€ activities. The fird issu€ is educaling and g€ir*E suppod lrorn waste pickers about the proposed sd|eme. This is so because many wasle picters wto olrently we atdump sites willbe asked to move to tt|e rcw siies and some oflhem may rBj€d fhe idea lBrlbrffiy il lhe site of he recycling centre is dislantfrontEir homesior, they may object because lhey lBw been salislied wift fie cunenl eaming and livir|o hey have. However, recognizing that there are a laqe numb€r of waste picters in urban areas in develodr€ countries, it rvill be diffcult to accommodate all rage picke.s at tEse sites.
Nevedheless, he ope€lion of rcqdiE sites is expecled to atlrdd mge pickers to wolk it hese sites instead ol at linal disp€l sites. Th€ fourfi bsue is the need lo rco4anize 6e picking aclivities. Should the sites be apprc{ed and provided by the local govemmenl and wade dckers be willing to work in these sites, then tEi adivities should be organized to follow cedain rul€s o. guilelines to prevent or ninimize pollution to sumrmlE arcas.
Three key issues h runicipal composliE are the provision offunds, [D qEation of maftets hr compost, and the existence d gor"mment policy b support lhe use ol composl. Eari:try lhe i|st trc concems are similar to thos€ h tF household and/q community mmposting. The linds rfll be used in padtuhr to lind, qeate, and s|Ath fl|al(ets tor composl h he long term, The availabny of govemment poficy to support lhe use of good q.Eny ompost as an altemalive to the chemical fertilizeruf, be very imporlant.
Key issues |gg€rdi{ safe disposal ildude the capability of proli&E affordable and sushinable
t l .
servrce, lhe necessily ol enswn{ operation thal minimizes health risks lo the public and lhe environrnent, and law enlorcement. Landlllls and in padicular incineration are nol hexpensive oplions.
Therefore. lheir proper ope.alion $oold be able to be sustained in the long lerm, while at tre same time lherr costs must be allordable or oltrcrwise thev will either be abandoned becalse lheir cosls fe unrecoverabl€ or their ope.alion becomes imgoper. lor instance by neglecling or violating standards. Therefore, lhe ne related issue is the ability to man*an the operatron lo minimize risks to lhe oublic ard t€ environnent. The last key issue is law enforcem$t h order t0 ensure proper operation ol lhose facilities.
22 ProceduralDine|rsions of GIVPM
The plocess invotved in lUStlPt in deleloping counlies should be characlerized by patlnerships among stakeholders lhal involve interaction.
coordination, conflicl rcsolutbn. ard enforc€ment. In lhis s€nse, partneEhips of dakeholders inean afiangements of several aciqs h order to perform specifc tasks, achieve t€t€h diectives, or soh/e partifllar problems or key issEs associated wittl planning and managemenl oflhe mnidpalsolid waste.
Parlnerships of stakeholders in lliiSWPM in developing counlies may occur in any inilhlir€s that include waste reduction, reuse (including he dealion ol markels or usels for recycled prcducts), tE Fwision of collection and transporlaiion services a{d lhe improvement of seNic€ quality, sourc€ sepankn and the op€ration ot sorting and recycling centes, curposting (househdd, community and municipal le,/€l). rid the operation of safe disposal options. In hese p€dnerships, each stakeholder will have certain de(s), aulhorily, and responsibilities. In lhis regad, lul adopt the idea of Femandez ('1 993) who ca'tegodzes stakeholdeE roles in urban solid wasle policy and dbn into three: policy make( supporter or facilitalor o( cdlyst, and the doer or taking of action. Figure 3 dB'{s stakeholders' partnershipsin $rs:f l,Pil in&t,c ryi{ coutti€6.
In general, policy makers may have aulhorily and responslbililies lor vanous lasks such as provrdang goals. directions, or guidance; lormulating policyi establishing political support; prepafing programs; and, provadjng resources. Facilitatorc or catalysls may have aulhorityand responsibilities in sev,eralarcnas, such as lacilitating the amplernentalion ol policy into action:
motivating or encouraging parl[ipants: anitiatang and building communication nelworks; inc.easing a'xareness and educaling participants, and, providing support. The doels or ihose who will lake aciion can have aulhority and responsibililies in provid;ng voluntary willingness and coopeGlion in Iaking action to achieve cerlain goah or to solve specific problem(s);
obeying laws and regulalions; conducting monitoring and enforcement; and, implemenlifl gprograms.
Partnerships of slakeholders in lltlSWPM in developing countries will tunctirn as a mediumlor DarticiDation and empowenenl disiftutbn of roles, authority and responsibilities; defidng goals/objeclives; making joint plans and decisirxF: setting pdodlies and targets;
developing manag€rrEol strategies: sharing various burdens; assessing progress; and, seeking compromise.
A few communicalho tools tiat can be used in the partnership of stakeholders in MSWPI\4 in developing cou ntdes may include inlormation shadng, regular and informal communicalim. joint reviews, joint budgeting and/or staff, joint planhg process, and plans. Tools for conllict resolution incfrrde interperconal or inlergroup communication,sp€cial meetings, mns€nsus building, and appeals to high€rarhority.
Partnerships of slaleholders in IMSWPM ofer three main benelils. First, all stakeholdeF can share lheir contribution accordtrg to their capabilities. Second, partnerships can rcletre some burdens usually canied out by lhe centralandror local govemmenl which has limited capacity in providing subsidies. Third, partnerships can rpt only nurture community or public involvement and parlhipation, but tt€y can also result in more sustainable €ftrb o( ado|l6 because every
s t a k e h o l d e r h a s i t s o w n r o l e s , a u t h o r i t v , responsibililies, and conlribution
In summary, ifpadnerships of stakeholders in ll,lSWPl\,1 in developing countries can wort well so tBteach aclor caffies oul lls ksks according to ils agreed roles, aulhoity aod responsibililies, lhen with some m€chanisms fu clodination afld cs id resolulion, evenlually lhes€ padneEhips ryill he capable of achievir4 goah/objeclircs or solvirE/r€ducing lhe various and complex problens andlo. confficts in municipal solid waste planning and managenent
23 Tte Polcycodrxlotuslt}f
The policl context of integrated municipal sdld naste planning and management (IMSVVPU) h d€{eloping countaies based on lhe literaturc leview, can be odlin€d into a hierarchy of. suslainable developmenl sustaioable uftan development, urban erNimmentd managemenl, and municipalsolkt waste planniru and managemenl {see Flgure 4).
Sustrnubb Dcvclopmc"r
! u i r . u r . ' l ' 1 . U t L , d t t s v - I , t , , ! . I j
Urt . Envimkrl ll.'.!.86r
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figrr..{.Sicr iri.ndl,sllipi,
The concepl of sustainable develoDment has been widely accepted by developed and developing count(ies. National policies for sustainable dercloFnenl are coosider€d as €n ombf€lla for tfE olhe$. As mentioned in lhe literature review, vadous goals or obiectives of suslainable developnent include economic (e.9., reviving growh, danging the quality ot
groMh, meeing environme0l and e{orcmics in decision making). social (e.9., ensudng a erstainable level ol populalion, meeting essenlbl tEeds such as jobs, food, energy. and sanilation), enviulEntal (e.g..
conseNing and eohancing th€ resoue bse), and lechnological {e.9., reorienting tectuEhgy. managing risks). Some g,oab and dimensions ol sustairEble develooment at he nalional level re relaled to municipal solid wade planninq and marqsnent. The provision ol sanitalion, includi0g uasb &lion and disposal, is required lor lhe satisfaclion of hic human needs.
The second policy level of ll\,tswPfil b srstainable urban deyel@ment Policies for stdarde udan develoDnenl are dedved lrom lhos€ b sostainable developrnent at the natonal level. Gooseqs ly, tllere are similarilies in concems and goals. l}dG-Smitl (1 995, 1996, 1307), lor instance, ident'f,ed sflle gmls of sustainable ud€n develoDment. sodr as economics (e.9., groMh, equity, eficiency), ecoqi;al (e.9., ecosystem integdty, carrying capacity, ti} diversity), and. social (e.9., enpowerment, padicipation, institutional devehpnent). A few d.ectuF for lhe implementalion of $slainable u6anderdrynentftom Drakakiesmilh (1995, 1996, 1994 ad Davidson (1996) include: empowermenl and pdticipalion, peoplejocused 4proaches, particjpdE planning.
integrdted and cqT{ehensive apprcodri, bottom-up initiatives, shateg- decision mahng h lE common good of future generations, an integraled le{al ba€king and inslitulional b€sis for enforcement, a|d a long-teqn examinalion of t|e impacts of aclim. Sqne of the issues, goal, and requiremenls for g.dilable urban development are rclated with lMSWPl,l.
The thkd policy level of llrswPll is urban environmental mamgemeni. As staled btff, Olley and Cotton (1998, 256), a study by UNoP ( lSO concluded ttrat 'fte cofledion and dispotC d rubbi$ is increasingly pemeived as one of lE greatest environmenlal Foblems lacing fi8ny oEbopold€n areas of lhe developingworid,'Asacc!ft,i emational
agencies have been oncefled walh the nountang pressuaes on the urban envionments ol developing countries. Various kinds of ail have been provided by loreign experts and lending agencies, in padicllarlhe Wodd 8ank. The primary objeclive was to support capacity building for uban €rNionmental planning ard manag€menl at lhe city o. rrunicidal level. Included in lhis otieclive was an inlenlin to improve urban waste management capacity and operational capacity- Canpbeil ('1999) argued tdtie expected oulcome 0f institulbnal developrnent b a0 organizalion or an inslituthn of waste mamgement which is capable of preparing waste managemer{ legislalion, regulalions, guida[e, and standadq developing ils humn .€soq€s to maintain €ftdive waste managenEnl actirities; inancing ils adivilies, lormulating stralegic planning ol longterm integrahd waste managem€i , aulhorizing the development of waste managemenl facilities; monitoring and enftrcing standards for all wasle nranagement seryices and facilities; ard.
prolidir{ information related bwaste.
Reced innovations in u6en iiaste managemenl in developing countries have been focused on insliMbnal developmenl Tro larticulat lhemes lEw
€me€ed: pivalizalion d servioe and parhelshipo among govemmenls, tE pdvate sectof, and local mmrlunity organizalions (C€.vero. 1995; Khonde ard Yhdego, '1997; Ali, olley and Cotton, 1998; Diaz, 1998;
Hallaard Mojani, 1999i Hqnweg andThomas,'l9gg).
These innovations also rcflesents a shift in policy tom the Ferious 'infrastructure
Fovision" to lhe curcnt 1ocal capacity building'. lMswPM is considercd as an alternalive fonn of parlnershhs and way of increasing lhe capacity of the municjpd authorities to deal wih f€
increasing complex problems associaled with munijpql solid wasle.
TIE bur$ policy level d IMSWPM is any pofcy trflxiabd specifi€a y tro d€al with vaious issues in muni(i)al solid waste plarxilq and management As menlhed in th€ lihr€tr8 review, policies br imegrated munichal solid waste planning and
StakrlFl.bF Aullonty
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I F f t . I l " - * - | | ; f f i ; | | n " t . t " e l l * " q o - l l - ' P * " '
Figut 3. Plrtul'tf. {d@l|oldaF in IMtWpM h &Elopi.g coeri6
managsmenl can be r€laled to wasle pfevention and rource reduction, service povbion, recycling, coflpodirg, 8rd sale disposal. ln e€dr componenl, a co.nbindion of policy inslrwsG d infomation dbsemirulil. ocoosnbinc€rdi/es (carols), producer responsibilry, economic coercim {slick). and legisfalivetDerDion mayberEqiEdflAson, 1996).
h (orlEtr,sion, the policy co.td d IMSWPM in d€veloping coontdes indMes trce rdr points. Fi.sl, 0|ere has been a growing rccogritir| by local and cenbal govenmenls as well 6 tE intemational cornmunity about the magnitude ol problems in
SWPM and ils adverse imacb or fE urban environmeni. Second, improving uh eovironmental manaoemenl capacity, includi4 llSWPl , becomes ilcr€€siogly inporlant h o(der h8d*r" some goals ol sustainaue (udan) development ll*d, approadrcs h udan environmenial manaoqs{ ard MSWPM that foster parlneGhips of stakeffis ae believed to be capabl€ of improving lhe locd c€iy for dealing aith tE comdex issues in llsll?ll h developing
@tlnties.
3.Furltslh(
Furtherwo is required to testtE pmped fiamewo in any uban area ol developirE cdrties in order lo s€e ils feasiulily and sustainabftty. A €s€ study will provide valuable insights regardiE 0E fhess of lhe proposed fiam€vrcrt wilh a locd cqg of an urban in developing counlies. These can be Mting for bolh rays. In one rvay, the findings nay he hdicalive ot a necessity lo nodify or revise tts Fq6€d tramn!*.
orl lhs oher my, an urban area car lrasure up itself rietrer it has many similailies dr t€ prcposed f'amewoft d not. this adsis c lead local municjpalfies b propare plans ffi tE popos€d tramer/o* of IMS\ryPM.
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Agunrvamba, JC (1938) 'Sdrd
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