Diction in academic writing of the sixth semeter students of the english education study program of Sanata Dharma University.

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DICTION IN ACADEMIC WRITING OF THE SIXTH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Laurentia Lila Paramita Student Number: 021214017

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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DICTION IN ACADEMIC WRITING OF THE SIXTH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF THE ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Laurentia Lila Paramita Student Number: 021214017

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to commence by expressing my greatest and highest gratitude

to Jesus Christ for His endless blessing, love, and inspiration.

I would like to thank Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd., as my major sponsor for his invaluable guidance, comments, and suggestions in writing this thesis. I am

also particularly grateful for Fidelis Chosa Kastuhandani, S.Pd., as my co-sponsor for his advice and precious time to revise my thesis.

I would like to sincerely thank to Dr. Philip Jenkins who always assisted and gave me valued comments, correction, suggestions, and encouragement. I

would like also thank Drs. F.X. Mukarto, M.S., Ph.D., and Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd, M.Pd., for helping me when I remained uncertain about this thesis.

My sincerest gratitude goes to my parents for their financial, spiritual

support, and encouragement during the accomplishment of this thesis.

My special gratitude goes to Wisma Bahasa for the chance to learn the

priceless knowledge. I am grateful for these following Wisma Bahasa colleagues

for welcoming, encouraging, and supporting me through the good and bad work

days: mas Boel, Cici’e, Adrian, Tiwuk, Ete, Russy, Letyzia, mas Sute, mba’ Prima, Mawar, Fajar, Niken, Gelar, and mas Sugeng. They are huge assets to have as friends. Besides, I am thankful for my wonderful students, Alfa, Josh, Akira, Danau, Rika, and Martin.

I also particularly thank the following people for being my friends and

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and Adjie ‘cepi peci’. I also greatly thank Sebastien Raimbert, Scott Hanna, Frank Lea, Filipe Lancastre, and Pascal, for their support, valuable experiences and memorable moments that inspire me to accomplish my thesis and learn the

values of life.

My deep gratitude also goes to all my friends in PBI especially Titin, Anissa, Haryana, Nathalie, Amrita, Amri, Binta, Ila, Ook, Andre, Rendy, and mas Kaka, all secretarial and library staffs for their sincere help when I conducted library study, LTI (Lembaga Toefl Indonesia) Jogjakarta branch, Bantul Tourism Department, and The Amanjiwo hotel staffs for the precious experiences. Words cannot express the gratitude I have for the experiences.

Finally, I am grateful to all friends who gave contributions on the research

and anyone who supported me to finish this thesis. Their efforts are very much

appreciated.

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Laurentia Lila Paramita. 2007. Diction in Academic Writing of the Sixth Semester Students of the English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.

This undergraduate thesis analyzed the diction in academic writing of the sixth semester students. There were three research problems in this study. The first problem dealt with the diction employed in the students’ writing. The second problem was concerned with the diction errors, and the last one was the likely source of the diction errors.

This study was conducted using descriptive qualitative method. It was intended to investigate the quality of the diction produced in students’ writing. The data were taken from the students’ final papers. There were 28 papers taken as the data in this study. To answer the research problems, those papers were analyzed. Each composition was evaluated based on theories of diction suggested by O’Hare (1984) and Gerson (2003).

The result of the data analysis showed that not all of the compositions implemented formal diction. Firstly, most of the compositions contained correct use of abbreviation. In more than half of the compositions, abbreviations were explained in plain words. This implied that most of the students did not meet difficulties in using shortening, initialism and contraction. The same result occurred with pronoun. Most of the compositions contained correct use of addressing and sexist pronoun. Yet, only half of the compositions contained correct use of expression. In fact, the wrong use of expression, such as the presence of colloquialisms, made the students’ compositions informal since they use conversational language. Besides, half of the compositions still contained exaggerated expression. This fact made the meaning less clear. The next one, nearly all of the compositions contained concise diction. They avoided ‘to be’ or ‘being’ forms, doubled words, redundancies, and negative forms. It implied that most of the students were aware of being concise. However, less than half of the compositions contained concise and straightforward phrases. Most of them still used long and devious phrases to convey ideas. This implied that most of the students lacked vocabulary as they mostly used longer phrases to state their ideas.

Concision error was statistically the most frequently encountered error in the students’ compositions, as it comprised 39.7% of the total errors in overall categories. The second rank was formality error (32.21%). It was followed by accuracy error in third place (14.23%), while clarity error ranked fourth (13.86%).

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xiii ABSTRAK

Laurentia Lila Paramita. 2007. Diction in Academic Writing of the Sixth Semester Students of the English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidian, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Skripsi ini menganalisa diksi dalam karangan akademik pada mahasiswa semester enam. Ada tiga permasalahan dalam penelitian ini. Masalah pertama berkaitan dengan diksi yang dipakai dalam karangan mereka. Masalah kedua dipusatkan pada kesalahan-kesalahan diksi. Sedangkan yang ketiga berkaitan dengan hal-hal yang mungkin menjadi penyebab dari kesalahan-kesalahan diksi dalam menulis karangan akademik.

Penelitian ini dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif yang bermaksud untuk menyelidiki kualitas diksi yang digunakan dalam karangan mahasiswa semester enam. Sebanyak 28 karangan dipakai sebagai data dalam penelitian ini. Untuk memecahkan permasalahan, karangan-karangan tersebut dianalisa. Setiap karangan dinilai berdasarkan teori diksi yang dikemukakan oleh O’Hare (1984) dan Gerson (2003).

Hasil dari analisa data menunjukkan bahwa tidak semua karangan menggunakan diksi yang formal. Pertama, sebagian besar dari karangan sudah benar dalam penulisan singkatan. Lebih dari separuh karangan, singkatan-singkatan sudah dijabarkan. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa tidak mengalami kesulitan dalam menggunakan shortening, initialism dan contraction. Hal yang sama juga terjadi pada penggunaan kata ganti. Sebagian besar karangan menggunakan addressing dan kata ganti sexist dengan benar. Akan tetapi, hanya sebagian dari karangan yang memakai expression dengan benar. Pada kenyataannya, penggunaan yang salah seperti pemakaian colloquialism atau bahasa sehari-hari menyebabkan karangan menjadi informal. Selain itu, sebagian karangan masih memakai exaggerated expression. Hal ini membuat arti kata menjadi kurang jelas. Selanjutnya, hampir semua karangan memakai pilihan kata yang singkat. Bentuk to be atau being, doubled words, redundancies, dan bentuk negative mampu dihindari dalam karangan. Ini menunjukkan bahwa hampir semua mahasiswa semester enam mengerti akan bagaimana menulis efektif. Tetapi, hanya kurang dari separuh karangan saja yang masih mengandung frasa atau kalimat yang singkat dan tidak bertele-tele. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa-mahasiswa tersebut memiliki kekurangan pada kosakata karena mereka masih memakai frasa yang panjang dalam mengungkapkan opini mereka.

Kesalahan concision secara statistik merupakan yang paling sering ditemukan dalam karangan-karangan para murid karena terdapat 39,7% kesalahan dari keseluruhan kesalahan diksi. Kedua adalah kesalahan formality (32,21%), diikuti dengan kesalahan accuracy (14,23%) dan clarity (13,86%).

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Writing is no longer a secondary skill but one with great significance.

Students are called upon to use English writing skill in their careers or to

participate in conferences and workshops, both before and after graduation. As a

fundamental element of all educational mainstreams and the central skill among

the four language skills, English writing skill is important to be successful in

almost any profession. The work of Odell (1985) states that no matter what

profession a person is in or plans to enter, developing English writing skill will

facilitate career advances. In other words, good English writing skill is an asset to

professionals (Zimmerman & Rodriguez, 1992: 5). This is reflected in the fact that

nearly all published articles require superior written communication in English.

Accordingly, professions that are either directly or indirectly associated with

writing require people to have good English writing skill. Further, today’s

technology makes it even more imperative to be able to write well. It has been

clearly shown that there are a lot of companies which place great reliance on

communicating through the internet. The easiest illustration is communicating via

e-mail, instant messaging, or reporting and publishing articles, essays, term

papers, contracts, business letters, professional journals, memos, and reports. The

students are thus required to build up English academic writing skill if they are to

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B. Problem Identification

The syllabus of the Writing VI course of English Study Program, Sanata

Dharma University states that sixth semester students must have good command

of English and be capable of composing well-organized academic writing.

Academic writing tends to be associated with hard work and difficulty, rarely with

pleasure. Academic writing is complex and not merely based on guesswork,

untested speculation, and received opinion (Swales, 1994: 2). Further, a good

academic paper must demonstrate wide knowledge of a subject, be

well-organized, and show effective use of sentence structure, word choice, and mastery

of mechanics (Sanata Dharma English Education Writing VI Composition Profile,

2006).

Formal, clear, and concise language is the preferred language for academic

writing as well (O’Hare, 1984: 317). Gerson (2003: 27) further affirms that to be

effective academic writing, diction must be accurate. In summary, formal, clear,

concise, and accurate language is appropriate for academic writing. However, the

students of the English Education Department, particularly the students of Writing

VI course still produce informal, unclear, and inaccurate sentences. For example,

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standard of the word choice in academic writing suggested by O’Hare and Gerson.

One of the most likely reasons is that the students have a limited range of effective

diction. In other words, they are unable to choose appropriate words for academic

writing.

Therefore, the students are not only compelled to have knowledge of the

ideas in their writing but also mastery of linguistic items such as the structure and

the diction. Diction, as Michael Agnes (1999: 400) points out, is a manner of

expression in words or choice of word. Anne Ruggles (1988: 301) further states

that finding exactly the “right” word for what the writer wants to say can be

difficult. As O’Hare (1984: 317) and Gerson (2003: 27) stated that appropriate

diction in academic writing must comprise formality, accuracy, clarity, and

concision.

Since the academic writing is significantly related with working world, the

researcher will investigate the students’ academic writing especially the students’

diction employed in academic writing covering four features suggested by O’Hare

and Gerson.

C. Problem Limitation

The researcher limits the word choice in the category of formality,

accuracy, clarity, and concision. Grammar does not have to do with word choice

but with word form and word order. Choosing the proper word form is a matter of

grammar but not of diction (Willis, 1966: 190). As the area of the research is

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analyzing the diction of students’ academic writing. The subjects of this study are

the sixth semester students of Writing VI course of the English Education Study

Program, particularly class E.

D. Problem Formulation

Focusing on the background, problem identification, and problem

limitation above; there are three questions in the research:

1. What diction do the sixth semester students of English Education Study

Program produce in their academic writing?

2. What diction errors do the sixth semester students of English Education Study

Program produce in their academic writing?

3. What are the likely sources of the diction errors?

E. Objectives

Relating to the problems mentioned; this study has three objectives that are

to find out the formality, accuracy, clarity, and concision of the diction that the

students mostly produce, to describe the diction errors that the students produce in

academic writing, and to reveal the likely sources of the diction errors.

F. Benefits

This study is expected to be advantageous and could give some inputs and

contribution for students to be more critical and selective in applying diction in

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that weaken the students’ diction. Besides, the researcher posits that the research

may assist the students in minimizing error in the diction of academic writing.

G. Definition of Terms 1. Academic Writing

Wikipedia (2006) describes academic writing belongs in the structure of

formal English. It is intended for a critical and informed audience, and based on

closely investigated knowledge. Academic writing in this study refers to the most

common pieces of writing in the academic world that are research papers.

2. Diction

According to Agnes (1999: 400), diction is a manner of expression in the

word or choice of words. In this study, diction refers to the writer’s choice of

words in academic writing which covers four above-stated features, namely

formality, accuracy, clarity, and concision.

3. Writing VI

The researcher refers to the definition as it is stated in the Academic Guide

of English Language Program (2005: 94) which clarifies that Writing VI is a

course in which the goal is students are able to write academic writing such an

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews all theories proposed by some experts which relate to

the research. There are two main parts in this chapter, namely theoretical

description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the

discussion of any literature related to the academic writing, diction, and error.

Theoretical framework summarizes all relevant theories, which helped the

researcher solve the research problem.

A. Theoretical Description 1. Academic Writing a. The Concept of Writing

There are some definitions of writing that can give a general understanding

of what writing is. Writing according to Troyka (1987) is a way of communicating

a message to a reader for a purpose. According to him, the purposes of writing

are: (1) to express oneself, (2) to provide information, (3) to persuade one’s

reader, and (4) to create a literary work. The first and the last purposes

significantly contribute to human thought and culture while the second and the

third purposes of writing above are most prominent and practical in academic life.

To produce a written form is a difficult task particularly for second

language learners. Writing for the ESL students requires maturity in both

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complicated by the fact that he or she lacks an intuitive sense of English language

conventions. For example, inadequate vocabulary and grammatical structure are

too limited to convey what they know and want to say.

According to Ambruster (2002: 118), writing is a complex goal-directed,

problem solving process that consists of a number of sub-processes. Further,

Raimes as cited in Musthafa (1994: 5) defines writing specifically as a set of

decision making process involving intricate choice of grammar, syntax,

mechanics, organization, word choice, purpose, audience, content, and the writing

procedure.

Writing is linked to language skills and elements such as reading,

listening, vocabulary, structure, and spelling. To be able to write well, students

must have extensive previous knowledge about orthography forms, lexicon,

syntax, and morphemes. Besides, a great part of writing proficiency also results

from prior knowledge. Vocabulary items, grammatical rules, and more generally,

the knowledge of the world play important role in writing. Since linguistic

proficiency is considered important, students need to learn the grammatical,

lexical terms, styles and formats as well.

Writing is commonly difficult for most students, even in their first

language. It is because writing is a complex process, and competent writing is

frequently accepted as the last language skill to be acquired (Hamp-Lyons in

Nunan, 1991: 91). Ball and Burnaby in Nunan (1989: 36) also reveal the

complexity of writing that writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity that

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Asher, 1994: 375) also says that “ process of writing views writing as the result of

employing cognitive strategies to manage the composing process that is a process

of exploration and developing organization”. He adds that it is comprised of

setting goals, generating ideas, organizing information, and selecting appropriate

language, drafting, reviewing, revising, and editing. Therefore, writing is a

complex activity, which for many foreign language writers is difficult.

b. An Overview of Academic Writing

As it was stated earlier, academic writing tends to be associated with hard

work and difficulty, rarely with pleasure. Swales (1994: 2) states that academic

writing is complex and not merely based on guesswork, untested speculation, and

received opinion. Hodgson (2005) also states that academic writing is careful to

include doubts. Essay, thesis, research article, book report are kinds of academic

writing which closely related with university students.

Concerning on the purpose, according to Jones (2005), the general purpose

of an academic writing is to present information that displays a clear

understanding of a subject. Meanwhile, the specific purpose varies according to

the assignment such as argumentation, persuasion, description, narration, and

exposition. According to Gocsik (2005), the structure and organization in

academic writing will be determined by the content itself. Further, he states that

content of academic writing must have a declared and arguable thesis. In other

words, in composing an academic writing, the writer must be able to present the

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her knowledge about the subject from his or her assumption about the subject.

Gocsik (2005) further explains that an academic paper is considered failed to meet

the expectation of the reader if it fails to argue or inform. Thus, in creating

arguments in academic writing, the writer needs to rely on several strategies.

Knowing about the function and structure of academic writing is

important. However, knowing about the appropriate style and conventions to use

when composing academic writing is equally important. Compare to other kinds

of writing, the style and convention of academic writing is obviously different.

Academic writing written in a university context tends to be structured, formal,

objective, impersonal, complex and contain technical language. According to

Hodgson (2005), the formal and impersonal nature of academic papers can be

achieved by avoiding certain types of language, such as avoiding conventional

language like a bit and maybe, contractions, abbreviation, and starting sentences with words such as but, again, and although. In addition, academic vocabulary is strongly recommended in composing academic writing, as it usually has more

precise meanings than its less formal equivalents.

c. Academic Writing Process

Some writers find it harder to deal with their own thoughts, since they are

fully responsible for generating the appropriate expression for good

communication. Academic writing tends to provide someone’s idea and a kind of

summary. In other words, academic writing is comprised of the small version of

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common techniques in providing someone’s idea in academic writing.

Paraphrasing process is repeating and rewriting someone’s statement using the

writer’s own word. It means that the writer may restate the idea in reduced form

without mentioning the author by name. This gives prominence to the information

itself, while the author is added simply as a reference, either by name, year and

page. Quoting process means choosing a single sentence or phrasing from the

original text that in itself, sums up the main point being made by the author.

Meanwhile, reporting means the writer reports the idea by describing indirectly

what the original statement is about.

d. Academic Writing Rubric

As a general rule, papers are evaluated according to the quality of writing

in several different elements such as argument or content, organization, and

language use. The elements of writing proficiency are the criteria that a faculty

uses to evaluate students’ proficiency in academic writing. Referring to Writing

VI Composition Profile, Sanata Dharma University (2006), the grading system is

classified into six categories namely excellent, very good, good, average, fair, and

poor. Specifically, to have the detailed frame of the grading system, the table of

Writing VI Composition Profile is presented in Table 2.1 (see p.11).

From the rubric in Table 2.1, in the area of language, the grading system

covers the sentence structure (preposition, articles, tense, compound and complex

sentences), vocabulary (idiom, diction or word choice), and mechanics (spelling,

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grading system in the area of language, particularly vocabulary area that is word

choice or diction.

Table 2.1

Writing VI Rubric, English Education, Sanata Dharma University Excellent – very

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expressions and displays each sentence in which they occur. Diction is defined as

a writer's choice of words. “A word is the minimal meaningful units of language.”

(O’Grady and Dobrovolsky, 1989: 90). Thus, diction has connection with words,

which are able to convey meaning for a certain context. Michael Meyer (2006)

further proposes that diction is not merely choice of words but also phrases,

sentence structures, and figurative language which combine to help create

meaning. The particular words an author uses will affect not only the message the

audience receives, but the way in which we interpret that idea (Douglas Hunt,

2002). In other words, diction must be suited to the purpose of writing. Anson et

al (2000) further say that all writings have a purpose, and the diction used should

coincide with purpose, and be based on audience. In cases like this, diction is

considered as a thesaurus. For each word in its glossary, a thesaurus lists

numerous synonyms yet no two words are exactly synonymous. Therefore, when

choosing a word to substitute, students must first decide if the new word fits (Day

et al, 1984: 16-17).

a. Good Diction in Academic Writing

How a word is finally understood depends on many factors. Standard

English has long been used as the guideline to judge speech or writing since

educated speakers and writers of English, business, and media commonly use it.

However, judgments about appropriateness are sometimes hard to make because

of the fluid nature of language and the effect of different writing situations. In a

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writing, depending on the subject, audience, and purpose. As a result, a word

choice that is appropriate in one context may be inappropriate in another. It is

appropriate and inappropriate in terms of whether it supports the purpose of the

writing. If the purpose is to present thesis and research so that the reader will find

the writer’s position credible, then the diction used should be appropriate,

meaning objective, concrete, and specific. In every kind of writing, it is essential

to choose the best word to express the intended meaning.

When writing academic papers, writers are expected to use formal

language rather than the relaxed conversational language they use in everyday

situations. Formal English is the level of language appropriate to this context

(Brewton et al, 1962: 78). A formal, standard set of rules is employed in academic

writing to minimize confusion and misunderstandings since it will be addressed to

an academic audience. Since academic writing is intended for a wide array of

people, locally, nationally and, perhaps, even internationally, academic writing

hence requires a more formal diction than everyday talk or journalism (Harvey,

2003). Appropriate level of formality is taken into account in academic writing.

Diction refers to the overall selection of language in writing. According to

McCrimmon (1984: 271), good diction is the choice of words that allows the

writers to communicate their meaning to their readers. However, the writers

sometimes may use longer phrase and complicated words because he or she is

trying to be academic or to show off. In other words, the writers are required to

present accurate and precise words for connecting the readers to the subject

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academic writing (O’Hare, 1984: 317). The following thus covers categories of

appropriate diction in academic writing.

1) Formality

Good diction has to do with choosing words for their level of formality as

well as for their connotations (Kemmerer, 1997). A writer will tend to use

different sets of language at different levels of formality almost instinctively.

Without even being aware of it, many people have been using different levels of

formality in their diction for many years. The only difference is that in writing the

writer needs to be conscious of the choices he or she makes. Harder et al (1965:

21) states that in some college writings, as in term papers for advanced courses,

the writing is appropriately formal. In other words, a choice that is formal is best

in academic writing.

Being aware of maintaining formality covers elements of formality which

needs to be considered, namely,

a. Abbreviation

Abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. There are three main

kinds of abbreviations: shortenings, contractions, and initialisms.

1. Shortenings

Shortening of words consist of the first few letters of the full form and are

usually spelled with a final period when they are still regarded as abbreviations,

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bicycle. Shortening is inappropriate in academic writing as it is less well

recognized by large audience (Wresch et al, 1988: 186).

2. Contractions

Contractions are avoided since they are informal English (Harder et al,

1965: 17; Wresch et al, 1988: 186). Weisman (1980: 314) explains that

contractions are words from which an unstressed syllable is dropped in speaking.

Specifically, contractions are abbreviated forms in which letters from the middle

of the full form have been omitted, for example, Dr. means doctor, St. means saint or street. Another kind of contraction is the type with an apostrophe marking the omission of letters: can't stands for cannot, didn't stands for did not, and you've stands for you have. One-word numbers (e.g. 12) also should be written out as twelve.

3. Initialisms

Initialism is made up of the initial letters of words and pronounced as

separate letters: CIA (or C.I.A.), NYC (or N.Y.C), pm (or p.m.), U.S. (or US). In formal writing, initialism should be put in plain words (Weisman, 1980: 314). For

example, CLT should be written as CLT (Communicative Language Teaching). b. Pronoun

Pronouns are troublesome in writing because their forms are numerous and

irregular and because not all of the various functions they serve in casual talk are

appropriate in writing (Harder et al, 1965: 336).

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Possessive pronouns are possessive in nature and appropriate in Standard

English, for example, Standard English often uses a preposition of rather than a possessive clitic (‘s) as shown in this example below,

Report’s contents will better written out as contents of report. 2. Sexist Pronoun

Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women, it is no longer acceptable to do so now as some of the readers

may be offended by sexist language (McMahan, 1984: 45). Thus, the writer must

avoid a masculine bias in pronouns or other words that indicate gender

(Memering, 1989: 249). As sexist pronouns are not allowed in academic writing,

the pronouns in academic writing are presented in third person, such as it, they, he or she, etc.)

3. Addressing

The use of I in academic writing should be avoided as it makes writing sound too subjective. According to Bradbeer (1999), in academic writing, You addresses the reader and it is better to find another approach. We groups the writer and readers together. Consider this example, we should all be more aware of... In this sentence, the writer is assumed to share his or her position with the readers.

c. Expression

According to Wendel (1999), an academic writer also needs to be aware of

expressions of different sets of language to maintain formality in academic

writing. The following will hence cover thorough discussion on slang,

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1. Slang

Slang is considered as a variety of language used in certain contexts by

means of which people express their sense of belonging to a particular group

within the community, which is not specific to any geographic location and

sometimes is known as "street talk" (Ellis, 2003). Slang often involves the

creation of new linguistic forms or the creative adaptation of old ones. According

to Langan (1996: 455), we often use slang expressions when we talk because they

are vivid and colorful. However, slang is usually out of place in formal writing.

Dumas and Lighter (1978: 14) further state that slang is markedly lower in

prestige than Standard English. It is inappropriate then to apply slang in academic

writing as academic writing is formal writing which uses Standard English and is

intended for wide range of readers.

2. Colloquialism

Colloquial is generally considered as conversational language (Brewton et

al, 1962: 80) as colloquialism comprises words that people, educated and

uneducated alike, use when they are speaking together quite informally

(McCrimmon, 1984: 273). In other words, colloquialism involves everyday

speech patterns that are acceptable in casual conversation. For example, The reason they failed was because they did not understand the questions should be changed into The reason they failed was that they misunderstood the questions. However, when immortalized in print, these words lack the ability to convey a

clear, universal message, because they may also have inconsistent local

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particular context, it is not precise enough using colloquialisms in academic

writing.

3. Clichés

Clichés are old and overused. According to Memering and O’Hare (1984:

318) a cliché is a worn-out word or phrase, some expression so familiar that no

longer has any force, such as better late than never, easier said than done, the bottom line, last but not least, unbelievable, and in this day and age. Clichés are common in speech but are uncommon in writing as the meaning of a cliché is

often confusing. For example, last but not least should be changed into last. 4. Jargon

According to Rugles (1988: 305), jargon is the specialized language of

occupations and fields of inquiry. Memering and O’Hare (1984: 318) stated that

jargon covers all specialized vocabulary and terminology which is specific to

particular trades, professions, and groups and can be neutral or suggest varying

degrees of contempt (Dees, 2003: 174). One example of jargon is The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishment Catholics offers an algorithm for deontological thought. When such language is used in its own sphere, it can make communication more effective, but when it is extended to

other realms, it makes writing more difficult for the average reader to understand.

In academic writing the writer must avoid jargon since academic writing

addresses not only a segment but also the whole of society.

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According to White (1986: 388), idiom is a non-literal informal expression

that is peculiar to one language and that cannot be literally translated into another

language. Idioms hence tend to confuse those who are not already familiar with

them. Idioms frequently cannot be analyzed grammatically and their meanings

develop through usage rather than through the relationship of the words to each

other (Brewton et al, 1962: 81). Alter (1979: 169) divides idioms through word

formation. The first formation consists of an adjective and a noun such as soft drink and cold war. The second formation contains verbs and noun, for example, keep an eye on and be at a lost. Another example is The final assessment is conducted every semester on the dot should be changed into The final assessment is precisely conducted every semester.

6. Neologism

Memering and O’Hare (1984: 325) state that neologism is a new word or

phrase that is created to achieve something that old words do not. Neologisms are

sometimes resisted because they are unfamiliar, perceived as unnecessary, or

considered improper or too informal (Dees, 2003: 242). Neologisms are generated

by compounding two or more existing words, as in couch potato and downsize. In this example, word, term, or phrase which has been recently created often to apply

to new concepts, or to reshape older terms in newer language form. New words

also come from abbreviations such as URL and CEO, blending, e.g. infomercial, and adding suffixes, such as sexism.

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Michael Meyer (2006) states that formal diction consists of an impersonal

language use. Nice, actually, wonderful, usually, basically, naturally, obviously, worthwhile, and everybody thinks are perceived as informal since they imply personal judgment of the writer.

2) Accuracy

Diction is vitally important since it affects the accuracy of everything we

write and say (McMahan & Day, 1984: 407). Accuracy is the chief virtue of the

academic writing style. Besides, there is a little value in academic papers that are

inaccurate. However, the writer must be careful not to oversimplify or distort the

concept in the process (Memering, 1989: 27).

a. Errors in Meaning

Vrooman (1967: 55) states that two causes of inaccuracy are:

1. Confused pairs

Some words frequently have different meaning although they are similar

in spelling. Consider these following examples: advise – advice, affect – effect, assure - ensure, continual (frequently repeated) – continuous (without interruption).

2. Words Confused by Analogy

Words are sometimes confusing by transference of meaning. The words do

not resemble one another in spelling, but their meanings are often switched such

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b. Exaggerated Expressions

Exaggerated expressions such as really, definitely, very, and extremely create a barrier between writer and reader (Memering, 1989: 351). Exaggerated

expression use of adjective and adverbs weaken vigor and precision. An academic

writer should be specially warned against the overuse of very and definitely. Especially, truly, quite, or others of this type are better advised than very and definitely (Willis, 1966: 190).

3) Clarity

Writing in an academic style does not mean writing to impress, but rather,

writing to communicate the writer’s message clearly to an expert audience

(Anderson, 2001: 155). Checking clarity means searching for passages that are

vague or ambiguous. Vague wording in academic writing will make the audience

think of the writer as indefinite (Blicq, 1986: 16). Employing specific words and

restricting meaning in this way will increase the sharpness of the image the reader

receives and decrease the chance of misunderstanding and communication failure.

a. Synonyms

When writers try to impress their readers by using long words and flowery

phrases inappropriately, they create stilted writing. The result is lack of

communication because ideas are obscured rather than clarified by the clutter of

words (Anson, 2000: 346). Selecting the right word might be difficult as one word

has various different shades of meaning. Synonym is a word of nearly the same

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especially rich in words of slightly different shades of meaning. McMahan (1984:

43) also states that synonyms often have different shades of meaning and nuances.

Sometimes a single word can replace a long phrase. Sometimes a more specific

word can replace a general or ambiguous one. Fast might be replaced by rapidly for example.

b. General Terms

In larger measure, finding exactly the right words in writing involves

choosing specific terms that will keep the readers’ attention (McMahan, 1984:

45). General words name classes and groups of things, while specific words point

to a member of a class or group. Both types of words are appropriate in their

respective contexts, but on the whole rely upon specific words, since they express

meaning more vividly and more precisely than general ones. Specific words tell

the reader that we are definite while vague generalities imply that we are unsure

of ourselves (Blicq, 1986: 348). Nouns, such as thing, area, aspect, factor, and individual are especially imprecise.

4) Concision

Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses

the strongest ones. In other words, it aims to avoid any words that can be removed

or tighten, clarify, and simplify the writing (Memering, 1989: 248). Concision

hence deals with wordiness. Writers often fill sentences with weak or unnecessary

words that can be deleted or replaced. According to Procter (2005), eliminating

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Wordiness is using more words than necessary to express a meaning. It is often a

sign of lazy or careless writing. Some sentences can be unclear in a variety of

ways either in the form of redundancy, misused words, and misused terms.

Joseph William (2003: 117) proposes five principles of concision in

academic writing. They are deletion of meaningless words, doubled words,

redundancy, phrase replacement, and negative form. These principles are easy to

state but hard to follow, because students have to inch their ways through every

sentence they write, cut, and compress some words.

a. Meaningless Words

Some words are verbal tics, including to be and being, forms that we use unconsciously. The use of to be and being in a sentence is considered as meaningless since it does not influence the meaning conveyed. Omitting these

forms will improve the quality of the sentences.

b. Doubled Words

Another form of concision is doubled words. Using two similar words to

express a meaning will baffle the readers. Omitting doubled words will improve

the virtue of the sentence, such as basic and fundamental and alter or change. c. Redundancy

Gerson states that redundancies are words that express the same thing

(2003: 39). There is some common redundancy which is hard to identify because

it comes in so many forms (Williams, 2003: 117). Every word implies its general

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a. Phrase Replacement

1. Padded Verbs

Inadequate range of vocabulary will produce weak verbs. Students may

hence combine words to produce the intended meaning. It may also reduce the

quality of academic papers, for example have an expectation is less effective than expect.

2. Formulaic Phrase

This wordiness is especially difficult to fix because the writer needs a big

vocabulary and the wit to use it (William, 2004: 119). One way of reducing

phrases is to look at the use of formulaic phrase. Consider this example:

Weak: Despite the fact that the data were checked, errors occurred. Good: Even though the data were checked, errors occurred.

The example above shows that despite the fact that might be compressed into less words.

b. Negative Form

When the writer expresses an idea in negative form, not only does he or

she has to use an extra word such as same which means not different, but he or she also forces readers to do a kind of algebraic factoring. The following expressions

are the same, but the affirmative is more direct, for example, not possible is less direct than impossible and not often is also less direct than rarely.

Based on the overall theories, effective diction in academic writing should

be aware of maintaining formality, accuracy, clarity, and concision. Using good

diction in academic writing involves choosing the right word for the meaning

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diction in academic writing, students often use a thesaurus. Although, students

often use it excessively and incorrectly in their selection of words, knowing that

all synonyms do not mean the same thing that each synonym has a subtle nuance

of meaning making it distinct from the other words will help them avoid random

substitutions of words that merely seem to look better.

b. Revising Diction

There are three ways to revise diction errors according to Vrooman (1967:

59) and McCrimmon (1984: 289). They are eliminating vague words, being

economical in using words, and using dictionary.

1) Eliminating Vague Words

Vague words such as thing, much, very, nice, usually, and really are regularly used in conversation. Vague words carry little meaning because they are

general (McCrimmon, 1984: 349). As they do not convey specific meaning to the

readers, an academic writer avoids vague words and requires more specific terms.

Eliminating vague words is thus crucial as it will lead to formality, accuracy,

clarity and concision of diction.

2) Being Economical in Using Words

As previously stated, concision in academic writing is inter-related to the

content conveyed. Moreover, long phrases and sentences will incite the readers to

lose interest. Wresch (1988: 197) further states that we make economical

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and formulaic phrases waste the reader’s time and interfere with the clear

communication of ideas. The quickest way to trim it is to cut any word or phrase

that contributes nothing worthwhile to the sentence. For example: There are some students who still have the same inappropriate behavior after being punished should be changed into There are some students who still misbehave after being punished.

3) Using a Thesaurus

A thesaurus may significantly affect the accuracy and clarity of the diction

in academic writing. A thesaurus is another valuable word source. It does not

define words; instead, it gives lists of synonyms. Although, synonyms are not

always interchangeable, a good thesaurus will clarify the distinction between

similar words (McMahan, 1984: 43). Further, a thesaurus is useful for revising

diction errors as it comprises detailed series of associated words where we can

find one that better suits the context (Guinn and Marder, 1987: 137), for example,

The students can yield their article by tomorrow. Yield is possible synonym for submit, but within this context, submit is more appropriate. In brief, a thesaurus can sharpen the writer’s word choice and build vocabulary, as it consists of

detailed series of synonyms to suit the context.

d. Developing Word Power

According to Perrin (1965: 362) and Langan (1996: 440), there are four

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word sheets, and vocabulary study books. The following explanation will

thoroughly discuss each way of developing word power.

1) The Use of Dictionaries

A dictionary is an effective tool for writers to help them revise a paper.

Computers are the latest way to use dictionaries. Various publishers have issued

dictionaries in electronic form. Dictionaries, old and new, have made their way

onto the Internet, and this form of publication is likely to become more usual.

Encarta World and Oxford dictionaries are examples of worldly accepted tool

dictionaries. Such dictionaries concentrate on the most commonly used and most

important words and meanings, define words in the simplest way, provide a

thesaurus of each word, and include many examples of words as they appear in

phrases and sentences, showing how the words are used and helping readers

understand the definitions.

2) Regular Reading

Reading is a basis of knowledge. Students may acquire linguistic

knowledge such as grammatical items, diction, language style, and word

composition through reading English texts such as books, newspapers, magazines,

and other printed materials. Further, vocabulary knowledge is explicitly acquired

through reading any English texts. Some parts of rapid word recognition skills

come from reading extensively and learning new words while reading (Schoonen,

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through explicit instruction, learning how to learn words of their own,

familiarizing themselves with their own-learning processes, and becoming word

collectors (Grabe and Stoller, as cited in Graves 2000; Stahl 1999).

3) Word Sheet

The first way to develop vocabulary by means of a word sheet is by

marking off words that we want to learn. After accumulating a number of words,

we look up in a dictionary the basic information of each word and record it on a

word sheet. Then, we need to write sentences in which each word may appear as a

word is always best learned not only in a vacuum but also in the context of

surrounding words. For example, approach (noun) has several meanings such as, (1) An act of approaching, (2) A way of dealing with person or thing, and (3)

Sexual advance. It has also other forms of the word such as, method, access, advance, methodology, and procedure. Specifically, its use in context is Our approach in dealing with the problem is different.

4) Vocabulary Study Books

The most effective way to help us to learn words is by looking at the

context and the words around the unfamiliar words, and unlocking its meaning.

This method is called using context clues or word clues. “30 Days to a More

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3. Error

a. A Brief Definition of Errors

Errors arise from a lack of knowledge of the rules of the language, i.e.

competence; while mistakes arise from factors such as fatigue and inattention, i.e.

performance (Chomsky, 1965, cited in Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982: 139). Burt

and Kiparsky (1974, as cited in Omaggio, 1986: 291) differentiate between global

error and local error. Global errors are errors that affect overall sentences

organization. They are also called major errors because they are likely to lead to

misunderstanding of the sentence (Norish, 1983: 106). Local errors are errors that

affect single elements in a sentence and they do not hinder communication. They

are also called minor errors because they hardly interfere with the writer’s

intended meaning.

Another definition is from Corder (stated in Dulay, 1982: 139), where

error consists of systematic deviations due to the learner’s still-developing

knowledge of the second language rule system. Further, error is a red flag that

provides evidence of the learner’s knowledge of the second language (Gas &

Selinker, 1994). In this research, the error is the students’ failure to use

appropriate words about academic writing system rule while they are still

developing their English ability. Specifically, errors refer to any deviation that

appears in the learner’s writing, regardless of causes of the possible deviation.

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Brown (1983: 177) states that there are three likely sources of error,

namely:

1) Interlingual Transfer

This source of errors is related with the entrance of rules of a language to

another language being learned. It is dealing with the interference of native

language. It is obvious that learners often use their previous experience with their

native language on the production of the target language.

2) Intralingual Transfer

Most errors result from the interference of the learner’s first language or

mother tongue (Dulay, 1982: 2). Second language sometimes is different from the

first language. For example, English is quite different from Indonesian.

Accordingly, the students frequently make errors in learning English. As noted by

Johnson (2001: 67) the number of errors of intralingual interference involves the

overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restriction, incomplete application of rules

and semantic errors. The first type, overgeneralization, is associated with

redundancy reduction. It covers instances where the learner creates a deviant

structure on the basis of his or her experience of other structures in the target

language. It may be the result of the learner reduces his or her linguistic burden.

The second source is ignorance of rule restrictions, for example, applying rules to

contexts to which they do not apply. The third is incomplete application of rules.

The last is semantic errors, such as building false concepts or systems: i.e. faulty

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3) Context of Learning

Context of learning refers to the teachers, textbooks, and materials. If a

teacher has low competence in explaining the students will model that wrong

explanation. Besides, carelessnes can make errors as well. Norish (1983: 21)

mentions that the material or the style of presentation can loosen the students’

interest. In other words, carelessness is closely related with lack of motivation.

c. Error Analysis

Error analysis is a category of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors

learners make. Researchers are interested in errors because they are believed to

contain valuable information on the strategies that people use to acquire a

language (Dulay and Burt, 1972). The investigation of errors can be at the same

time diagnostic and prognostic. It is diagnostic because it can tell us the learner’s

state of the language (Corder, 1967) at a given point during the learning process

and prognostic because it can tell course organizers to reorient language learning

materials on the basis of the learner’s current problems.

B. Theoretical Framework

Professions that are either directly or indirectly associated with writing

require people to have good English writing skill. Formal writing is required for

being accepted in working world as writing skill plays a central role in all

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As one variety of formal writing, academic writing is a compulsory course

for sixth semester students of English Education Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University as it will serve as fundamental skill to other following

compulsory courses such as Seminar on Language Teaching, Research on English

Language Teaching, Thesis Writing, Service Program Design, and Thesis course.

Since the sixth semester students of Writing VI course have encountered

overall writing courses, they must be able to produce good diction. They should

be at the level where they no longer make diction errors in formal writing.

Nevertheless, they perhaps find difficulties selecting the right words in academic

writing. Since they may produce inappropriate diction in developing their

academic writing, some experts’ points of view are used as the references. To

obtain the thorough information of the students’ diction, the integration of diction

features for academic writing suggested by O’Hare and Gerson becomes the main

instrument. It is used as the guidance in evaluating the students’ diction in

academic writing.

In brief, some experts’ points of view play some significant roles in

exploring, identifying, and analyzing the students’ diction in terms of formality,

accuracy, clarity, and concision. It serves as the basis of the research that leads to

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33 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents detailed discussion about the methodology employed

in this study. This includes the descriptions of the method of research, the

participants, the setting, the instruments, the procedure, and the data analysis.

A. Method of Research

This study was a descriptive research. It was designed “to obtain

information concerning the current status of phenomena” (Ary et al, 1990: 381).

At the same time the research was done without their being influences by the

investigator. Therefore, there was no treatment toward the students’ diction in

academic writing. The data were purely natural without the researcher’s

interference.

Descriptive research consists of several methods. To obtain the specific

information, the research employed document analysis method. Documentary

analysis is a research method applied to written or visual materials for the purpose

of identifying specific characteristics of the material (Ary et al, 2002: 442).

Since this study explored the diction in the students’ academic writing as a

major focus for investigation and interpretation, qualitative research was applied.

Sprinthall (1991: 100) further states that the data gathered in qualitative research

are purely descriptive and not numerical. Therefore, there was no hypothesis

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B. Research Participants

The term population refers to the entire group of persons, things or events

that share at least one common trait (Sprinthal, 1991: 27). The target population of

this research was all the sixth semester students who belonged to Writing VI

classes of English Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University of the

academic year 2003/ 2004. Since it would not be possible to survey the entire

classes, a small sample designed to be the representative of the population was

selected. A sample is “a subgroup taken from the population to represent it”

(Brown, 1991: 114). There are five Writing VI classes and class E was taken as

the sample of the population in this research. Class E consisted of thirty students.

Since two students were not sixth semester students, the researcher thus took 28

students as the sample.

C. Research Setting

The research was conducted at the English Language Education Study

Program of Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta. It was done from August

until December 2006 towards the sixth semester students of the academic year

2003/2004. The researcher collected the final assignment from the lecturer to be

analyzed as the data for the research.

D. Research Instruments

The research employed four checklists as the instruments. Those checklists

consisted of formality, accuracy, clarity, and concision categories derived from

Diction in academic writing of the sixth semeter students of the english education study program of Sanata Dharma University.

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