A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Attainment of the Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Language and Literature
By
Halim Widyawardhana
11211144009
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS
v thesis to:
My Father, Hajar Gelis Pramudyasmono
My Mother, Widayati
My Brother, Andhika Widyadwatmaja
For their support and prayers for my struggle in being a better person in life.
My late Grandfather, Kardji Hadisiswanto
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blessing, guidance, and mercy, I am able to finish my undergraduate thesis. My
greeting and invocation are presented to the prophet Mohammad SAW, who has
guided his followers to the straight path of life; Islam. I acknowledge my thesis
consultants, family, lecturers, and friends who have encouraged and supported me
during my struggle in writing my thesis.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deep appreciation and
gratitude to my consultants; Dr. Widyastuti Purbani, M.A. and Eko Rujito D.A.,
M.Hum, for their guidance, advice, and constructive criticism during my process
of writing this thesis. Second, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to my
my parents, Hajar and Widayati, who always support and pray for me in order for
me to complete this thesis with my maximum effort. Then, I would like to thank
my brother, Andhika, for his help whenever I need it. My special thanks go to my
late grandfather, Mbah Kardji, for giving me guidance and advices in life. Finally
now I could keep my promise to him by finishing my thesis. I hope we will meet
again someday in Jannah.
In addition, I would like to thank all lectures of the English Department of
the State University of Yogyakarta, who have taught me valuable lessons in
campus. Next, I would like to thank all of my friends from ‘Sasing 2011’ for their
support and help in accomplishing my thesis. I thank them for accompanying me
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RATIFICATION SHEET ... iii
SURAT PERNYATAAN ... iv
DEDICATION ... v
MOTTO ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ... xii
LIST OF TABLES ... xiii
ABSTRACT ... xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Focus of the Study ... 8
C. Objectives of the Study ... 9
D. Significance of the Study ... 9
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 11
A. Theoretical Background ... 11
1. Literature and Psychology... 11
2. Erik Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory ... 13
a. The principle of psychosocial theory ... 13
b. The stages of psychosocial development ... 15
1) trust vs. mistrust. ... 16
2) autonomy vs. shame and doubt. ... 17
3) initiative vs. guilt. ... 18
4) industry vs. inferiority. ... 19
5) identity vs. role confusion. ... 20
6) intimacy vs. isolation. ... 21
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1) physical abuse. ... 25
2) psychological maltreatment. ... 26
3) neglect. ... 27
4) sexual abuse. ... 28
c. Causes of the abuses... 28
1) parents having stress problems. ... 29
2) lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child. ... 29
3) poverty. ... 30
4) the vulnerability of the abused. ... 30
5) drugs and alcohol. ... 31
6) parent‟s divorce. ... 31
7) the environment of the abusers. ... 31
8) gender inequality. ... 32
9) abusers‟ past experience. ... 32
d. Effects of the abuses ... 33
1) physical wound in certain area of the body. ... 33
2) having difficulties in coping with anger. ... 34
3) difficulties in studying. ... 34
4) difficulties in socializing. ... 34
5) poor physical health. ... 35
6) juvenile delinquency and adult crime. ... 35
7) consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic. ... 36
8) genophobia. ... 36
B. Previous Research Findings ... 36
C. Conceptual Framework ... 38
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D. The Technique of the Data Collection ... 42
E. Data Analysis ... 43
F. Data Trustworthiness ... 43
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 45
A. The Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 45
1. Psychological Abuse ... 45
2. Sexual Abuse ... 48
3. Neglect ... 53
4. Physical Abuse ... 55
B. The Causes of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 58
1. Gender Inequality ... 58
2. Poverty ... 60
3. Abuser‟s Past Experience ... 62
4. Parent‟s Divorce ... 64
C. The Effects of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 65
1. Genophobia ... 66
2. Juvenile Delinquency and Adult Crime ... 69
3. Physical Wound in Certain Area of the Body ... 71
4. Difficulties in Socializing ... 73
D. The Effects of the Abuses on Tess‟ Personality Development ... 74
1. Inferiority ... 75
2. Role Confusion ... 78
3. Isolation ... 82
4. Generativity ... 85
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION ... 90
REFERENCES ... 93
APPENDICES ... 95
xiii
Table 2: The Types of Abuse Experienced by Tess ... .. 41
Table 3: The Causes of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 41
Table 4: The Effects of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 42
Table 5: The Effects of the Abuses on Tess‟ Personality Development ... 42
xiv
By Halim Widyawardhana 11211144009
ABSTRACT
This research aims to find the abuses experienced by Tess Stevens, the causes of the abuses, the effects of the abuses, and the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development in the autobiography of Sold. In order to answer the objectives, this research employed Erikson‟s psychosocial theory and the theories of abuse by several scholars.
This study is a qualitative research employing content analysis method. The data of this research are words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs which are taken from an autobiography entitled Sold which have correlation with the objectives of the research. Since this is a qualitative research, the researcher was the primary instrument of this research, while the table sheets were the secondary instruments. The data analysis was conducted through four steps: reading and re-reading, arranging and sorting the categorized data, interpreting, and reporting the findings in the research. In order to obtain trustworthiness, the researcher conducted triangulation.
The findings of the research show that there are four abuses experienced by Tess: psychological abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and physical abuse. The second finding shows that there are four causes of the abuses: gender inequality, poverty, abuser‟s past experience, and parent‟s divorce. The researcher also found that there are four effects of the abuses: genophobia, juvenile delinquency and adult crime, physical wound in certain area of the body, and difficulties in socializing. Finally, there are four effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development: inferiority, role confusion, isolation, and generativity.
1
A. Background of the Study
Literature may represent a society or culture of certain people. Literature
and society are interrelated. What is written in a literary work reflects a certain
society, and in the society there could be an interaction or socialization between
different people. Some literary works do not show the life of humans as the
characters. Some shows the story of other beings such as plants and animals.
Although some tells about the story of non-human characters, these characters still
imitate the life of human, such as the way it thinks, the way it lives, the way it
socializes, the way it deals with problems, etc. It could be said that the idea of
literature is received from the society and human beings are commonly used as
the source of inspiration for creating the characters.
Similar to literature which treated human beings as the source of
inspiration for creating the characters of the story, psychology also treated human
beings as the main object of the research. According to the Cambridge Advanced
Learner‟s Dictionary, psychology is “the scientific study of the way the human
mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of a particular
person's character on their behavior”. Although both have a similar object, which
is humans, both also have a difference. Literature deals with the humans in the
imaginary world, while psychology deals with the real humans (Moghaddam,
Human beings are unique, because their personalities vary among one
another. The differences in personalities are due to three major factors; physique,
psychology, and experience (Herlambang, 2011: 9). The physical traits such as
body height and body weight could influence a person‟s personality. Those with a
small body size, for example, might have the characteristics of being shy and
having low self-esteem. Another factor is psychology. It is the basic trait which
could be inherited from parents, such as brain capacity and emotion. The other
factor is experience. It contributes greatly to human‟s personality since it can
shape the personality development. The experiences which an individual has in
the past can influence his/her personality in the future.
Besides physical and psychological factors which contribute to human‟s
personality, experience is also dominant in shaping someone‟s behavior
(Herlambang, 2011: 9). Both physique and psychology of a person may have
different functions in a certain circumstance due to the influence of experience
which a person receives. For instance, a person who is high-tempered and
emotional at home will try to control his/her behavior at school because he/she
undergoes the punishment for misbehaving previously. This shows that experience
is also influential and could affect physical and psychological factors.
Experience is considered to be unique since one‟s experience differs from
others. People never have the same experience in life, although it occurs similarly
in the same place and at the same time. The differences of experiences are the
reason human beings differ in personality. The experience in life could function as
personality building since it is the power which human believes in and depends
on.
Experience can be classified into two types: general and unique
(Herlambang, 2011: 9). General experience is experienced by people in general or
by every individual. Different people who are not connected by blood but live in a
similar area can experience it. As an example, the Javanese will usually give
high-respect to the elders and behave politely because these manners are considered as
social norms that should be practiced and taught since childhood. The second is
unique experience. It is experience by the individual him/herself. Different
individual may have different experience. The different experience which each
individual has will affect his/her interaction with others. An example is that
someone may behave less confidently since he/she has a burnt skin or scar on
his/her face due to external factors.
Human‟s experience could be good or bad. Good experience gives
pleasure, reduces the level of stress, increases the knowledge of the individual,
and stays in his/her mind for eternity since it is desirable. Similar to good
experience, bad experience could also stay in an individual‟s memory and might
be unforgettable. Thus, both good and bad experiences can potentially influence
the development of human‟s behavior.
Personality development is greatly affected by the social and historical
factors (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2006: 247). According to Erikson, humans will
experience the eight psychosocial stages in life. The stages are infancy, early
old age. The previous stages will affect the next stages of personality
development. For instance, the experience which someone has in his/her school
age could influence the development in the other next stages such as the
adolescence or adulthood.
Personality development plays an important role in human‟s lives as a
medium to improve personal quality and relationships with others. Personality
development includes increasing self-confidence, increasing morality, improving
communication skills, and expanding the boundaries of knowledge. For those who
work in areas which deal and interact with people, personality development is
highly required. An example is that a salesman needs to have great
communication skills to convince his customers to buy his products. On the other
hand, lacking the quality of personality development could cause a person to have
low morality and dependent.
Abuse is one of the phenomena which could influence personality
development. Abuse is considered as a serious crime around the world. It is
considered cruel and terrifying. Therefore, it is important and will be interesting to
discuss it more. According to the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act
(CAPTA) in the United States of America (2010: 3) there are several types of
abuses; neglect, abandonment, physical, sexual, emotional, and parental substance
abuse. These could cause negative effects to the victims, so people should pay
more attention to this phenomenon if it occurs in the society.
Different abuses may cause different effects to the victims. The researcher
since they are considered as the most common violence that exists around the
world. In the case of physical abuse, the abuser could cause physical damage to
the victim, such as bruises and bone fracture. Sexual abuse could cause fatal
problems, such as unusual changes in the genital area, pregnancy, and transmitted
diseases. The lack of care to a child/person also has negative effects, such as
child‟s poor personal hygiene and persistent hunger. Emotional abuse could give
negative effects such as headache, nausea, and mental development problems.
Although each type of these abuses has different effects, it can greatly influence
human‟s personality development if it occurs continuously in the range of years.
One of the factors that cause in abuse is the low economic level of a
family. Unfortunately, many people are not aware that poverty can encourage the
abusers to abuse their family members or others. Gilhan and his colleagues (in
Corby, 2006: 131) discovered that there is a correlation between male
unemployment and abuse of children in a survey of nearly 7,000 cases in
Strathclyde in the early 1990‟s. Another research done by the National Incident
survey in 1996, they founded that the child sexual abuse were 18 times higher for
children from poor families in the USA (Sedlak and Broadhurst in Corby, 2006:
132).
Human beings have the right to live in this world peacefully and receive
freedom. According to the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary-3rd
Edition, freedom could be defined as “the condition or right of being able or
allowed to do, say, think, etc. whatever you want to, without being controlled or
freedom. Their freedoms are denied by the act of violence they get. Many people
have been neglected, starved, and attacked cruelly, so abuse is considered as a
serious problem around the world.
There have been some cases of abuse in different countries. In New
Guinea in the Bena-Bena area, selling and exchanging children as hostages
occurred (Serpcnti in Korbin 1981: 15). The cases of abuse could also be found in
Britain. According to Pollock (in Corby, 2006: 20), there were 385 tried cases of
such a practice between 1785 and 1860. Another case happened in Cleveland in
1987. A number of 121 children were sexually violenced and most of them were
abused anally (Hobbs and Wynne in Corby, 2006: 44). Since many cases have
occurred in some countries throughout the years, it is very important for people to
prevent this act from happening since it is against the human right and limits
freedom.
Some literary works reflects the phenomenon of abuse since it is a
reflection of human life. One of the literary works that strongly reflects human
experience is an autobiography. Autobiography is a non-fictional story about a
person which is written by the person itself. One of the autobiographies that talk
about the phenomenon of abuse is Tess Stevens‟ autobiography entitled Sold.
Although this autobiography contains the issues of poverty and women‟s struggle,
the researcher would like to focus on the abuses mentioned in the autobiography
because it is the main issue of the book.
The use of psychological approach in literature is appropriate because
similarity, psychology and literature differ in the dimension of the object. The
dimension of the object of psychology is the real world, while the object of
literature is the imagined world, which is the world of literary works which
contain the reflection of human behaviors. Mimetic approach is appropriate to be
used in psychological literary research since this approach seeks to see how well a
work adjust with the real world.
Tess Stevens was born and grew up in South London, Britain. She lived
with her family in a brothel. Her mother, Grace, rent her to rich men when she
was eleven years old. From this man she endured sexual abuse. In her adult life,
Stevens followed her mother‟s step by opening a brothel. She then met Christine
Keeler, the Kray twins, Myra Hindley, famous actors and politicians.
Although many books about sexual abuse have been written, Tess Stevens‟
autobiography entitled Sold is more interesting because the main character (the
writer herself) experience abuses, talks about the life of abused victim in a
brothel, and talks about women‟s struggle in gaining wealth. Among the issues
being talk in the autobiography, abuse is the most dominant issue in the
autobiography entitled Sold. Tess experienced several abuses such as physical,
sexual, neglect, and psychological abuses. She receives the abuses from her
mother, step-fathers, friends, caregiver, teacher, partners, and punters. Due to
these unpleasant treatments, she suffers from psychological problems in her
childhood. These experiences do not only affect her childhood and adult life, but
also her personality development. So, it is worthy to discuss the effects of the
B. Focus of the Study
Sold is an autobiography written by Tess Stevens. It was first published in
Great Britain in 2008. There are several issues discussed in this autobiography.
Among them are poverty, women‟s struggle, abuse, and personality development.
This research focuses on psychological aspects of Tess Stevens'
autobiography in order to get information about abuse, the causes, the effects in
general, and the effects on personality development. There are several effects of
the abuses, such as genophobia, juvenile delinquency and adult crime, physical
wound in certain area of the body, and difficulties in socializing. These effects
affect Tess‟ personality development. It is interesting to analyze Tess Stevens‟
autobiography since an autobiography tells about the whole life of a person. By
analyzing this autobiography, it will help the researcher gain more information
about Tess‟ personality development.
The researcher analyzes the personality development of Tess as the
abused victim by using Erikson‟s theory of the eight psychosocial stages.
According to Erikson, human experiences eight psychosocial stages in life such as
infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescence, young adulthood,
adulthood, and old age. The beginning of each stage will influence the next stages.
As an example, the abuses which Tess experienced in her school age such as
being sold to punters, affect her adulthood stage on how she treated her daughter.
Based on the focus of this study stated above, the researcher formulates
1. What abuses are experienced by Tess?
2. What are the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess?
3. What are the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess?
4. What are the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development?
C. Objectives of the Study
The aims of this research are:
1. to find the abuses experienced by Tess,
2. to find the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess,
3. to find the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess, and
4. to find the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development.
D. Significance of the Study
Based on the background and the objectives of this study as stated above,
there are some benefits could be achieved by this study. Those benefits are:
1. Theoretically
This research is intended to give better understanding on literary study. It gives
and broadens one‟s perspectives on personality development, abuse and
psychological phenomena in a literary work. This research is also expected to give
more information and knowledge on how to apply Erikson‟s psychosocial theory in
analyzing a literary work. Hopefully this research is useful and can be used as a
2. Practically
First, this research may broaden the knowledge of the readers about abuse.
Readers will be aware that there are many forms of abuses and each abuse could
bring negative effects to a person. Second, this research may create a better
11
This chapter deals with literature review. This chapter aims to give
explanation on the theories used, previous research findings, and the conceptual
framework of this research.
A.Theoretical Background
1. Literature and Psychology
Psychology of literature is interdisciplinary between psychology and
literature. Since both psychology and literature deals with the world and human
as a social and living being, the use of psychological approach is considered
important in literary research. The use of psychology is also considered common
in interpreting literature (Moghaddam, 2004: 512). According to Moghaddam
(2004: 516) psychology and literature have a difference. Psychology deals with
the real world and human behavior, while literature deals with the imagined world
and human behavior. But this difference only differs in a matter of factuality, not
on the object.
The use of psychological approach in analyzing literary works is not a new
thing in a research. An observation done by some psychologist including Freud,
stated that the idea of „psychology is literature‟ is not a new thing (Moghaddam,
2004: 519). Freud himself actually did not create the principles of psychoanalysis;
he only found it in human beings. Freud did not create all theory of human
human beings would still exist whether Freud did or did not create that principle
(Tyson, 2006: 37). So, literary texts dealing with human being or human
behaviors are included as psychoanalytic, and all criticism is included as
psychological criticism because all criticism and theory proceed from assumptions
about the psychology of the humans who make or experience or are portrayed in
literature (Holland, 1990: 29).
Literature is a mirror of life since it reflects the reality. Literary works are
reflection of human behavior and the world. Since literature is a reflection of
human behavior and the real world, the mimetic approach is appropriate to be
used. This approach seeks to see how well a work adjust with the real world. The
term mimesis is derived from the Greek mimesis, meaning to imitate. According
to Abrams (1953: 8) the explanation of art is imitation of aspects of the universe.
Painting, poetry, music, dance, and sculpture are all imitations according to
Socrates (in Abrams, 1953: 8). Through the eighteen century, art is believed to be
an imitation. Hurd (in Abrams, 1953: 11-12) said in his ‘Discourse on Poetical
Imitation’ that „All poetry, to speak with Aristotle and the Greek critics is
imitation‟. In addition, Aristotle (in Abrams, 1953: 9) also defines literature as
imitation. Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, and dithyrambic poetry are imitation.
In relation to psychology and literature, there are three important elements
(Abrams in Minderop, 2013: 61). The first element is that researcher has to
observe the author to explain the work. Second, understand the author regardless
reconstruct the author from its life, and use the author‟s work as a life record.
Third, reading a literary work to find the mirror of personality of the author.
2. Erik Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory a. The principle of psychosocial theory
Erik Homburger Erikson was born in Germany in 1902. He was a
psychoanalyst whose aim was to extend Freud‟s perception on personality
development. Erikson graduated from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute before
coming to the United States in 1933. He became a citizen of the United States in
1939 and contributed greatly to literature on psychoanalysis, personality theory,
educational practice, and social anthropology. Erikson‟s post-Freudian theory
develops Freud‟s developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
According to Erikson, each of the stages has its influence on personality
development.
According to Erikson in (Feist and Feist, 2008: 246) “ego is the partially
unconscious organizing agency that synthesizes our present experiences with past
self-identities and also with anticipated images of self. He defined the ego as a
person‟s ability to unify experiences and actions in an adaptive manner.” Erikson
(in Feist and Feist, 2008: 246) “stated the three interrelated aspects of ego: the
body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity.”
The body egorefers to experiences with our body, a way to see our physical
self differently from others. The ego idealrepresents the image of us compared to
self and ego identity. Ego identity is the images that we have in our social roles.
The changes in our body ego, ego ideal and ego identity may occur in any life
stages.
Although inborn capacities are important in personality development, ego
is mostly formed by the society. Erikson‟s view that personality is influenced by
the social and historical factors is contrast to Freud‟s beliefs that personality is
mostly influenced by the biological factor. According to Erikson, humans have
their ego since they were born, but to realize it, the society is needed. One of
Erikson‟s contributions to the personality theory is the extension of Freud‟s
development theory up to school age, youth, adulthood, and old age.
Erikson believes that ego develops in each of the life stages according to
the epigenetic principle. In epigenetic, the growth of the organs of a baby
develops step by step. Similarly to this principle, ego also has its own stages and
develops according to its time and each of the ego develop after the previous step
is done. Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 248) described the epigenetic principle
by saying that “anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground
plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts
have arisen to form a functioning whole”. In addition, “epigenesist means that one
characteristic overlaps one another in space and time” (Evans in Feist and Feist,
b. The stages of psychosocial development
There are eight psychosocial development stages according to Erikson;
infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescent, young adulthood,
adulthood and old age. All of these stages follow the epigenetic principle, one
stage occurs after another stage has been experienced.
Each of the life stages has its own interaction of opposites called contrary
disposition. It is a conflict between the syntonic (harmony) element and dystonic
(conflict) element. As an example, in adolescence, people will experience identity
versus role confusion. Identity is the syntonic element since it is a positive
element, and role confusion could be considered as the dystonic element since it is
the cause of the problem of this stage. Although both elements contradict each
other, both are needed for a person to make him/her able to develop in life.
Identity could make a person stand firm in life and ease him/her on pursuing life
goals, since he/she knows who she is and her objectives to be born in this world.
While role confusion is needed because it could make a person think deeply on
his/her identity and the purpose in life. Trial and error in searching their identity is
a normal and a positive matter in creating a better personality.
In each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements
results in the production of basic strength. As an example, the conflict between
identity and role confusion leads to the emergence of fidelity. This occurs when a
person experiences more syntonic element than dystonic element. On the contrary,
who does not have fidelity will experience role denial in a form of diffidence and
defiance (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 258-259).
Erikson believed that human beings experience eight psychosocial stages
in life. These stages also have their own basic strength and core pathology and
influence one another in the development of personality. Here are Erikson‟s
psychosocial development stages.
1) trust vs. mistrust.
This stage occurs in the first year of life. The mother of a child becomes
the most important person at this stage because when a child was born to this
world, he/she feel uncertain and insecure of this world. A child also needs a
person who could feed his/her needs, so, a mother would be the right person to
fulfill it and make the child comfortable. At this stage, a child learns to either
trust or mistrust the outside world. Infants must experience hunger, pain, and
discomfort as well as the good conditions in life. By having both painful and
pleasurable experiences, infants will learn to struggle in this world in order to gain
satisfaction. In can be said that both syntonic and dystonic should take part
equally in life because it is important in the development of a person. A mother,
who often provides her child‟s needs such as giving foods or changing their
diapers when it is wet, could create a sense of trust from the child. On the
contrary, if his/her mother do not provide and could not understand the needs of
the infant, he/she would feel uncertain about her mother and soon lose the sense
of trust towards his/her mother. Erikson believes that both trust and mistrust are
Feist, 2008: 252) that “when we enter a situation, we must be able to differentiate
how much we can trust and how much we must mistrust, and I use mistrust in the
sense of a readiness for danger and an anticipation of discomfort”. The conflict
between trust and mistrust could create a basic strength called hope if the trust an
infant receives is greater than mistrust. But, if an infant does not receive enough
hope, he /she will experience withdrawal (the core pathology at this stage).
Withdrawal will cause an infant to be inferior in facing the world.
2) autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
This stage occurs in the age of 2 up to 3 years old. At this stage, a child
will experience autonomy versus shame and doubt. Autonomy is the syntonic
element of this stage, while shame and doubt are the dystonic. Similar to the first
stage, this stage also needs both autonomy and shame and doubt to be included in
a development. Children who lack of autonomy will found difficulties to develop
in the next stages. Autonomy develops from the basic trust of children. Trusting
their surroundings is important in order to create a secure feeling and create
self-confidence. From the self-confidence which develops in a child, he/she will
become autonomous. On the contrary, if he/she does not have enough
self-confidence, shame and doubt which is a dystonic element will develop. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of will, which is the basic strength of early
childhood stage. In this stage, children only achieve their basic will which is
imperfect. Their „will‟ would develop through the next stages of life. Those who
3) initiative vs. guilt.
This stage occurs in the play age, from 3 up to 5 years old. Erikson (1968)
stated that, in addition to identifying with their parents, preschool-age children are
developing locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the ability to
set goals. At this stage a child started to play role on being other people. Play age
is also the stage in which children are developing a conscience and beginning to
attach labels such as right and wrong to their behavior. At this stage children gain
more knowledge and have broader imagination. Due to their develop knowledge
and imagination, they started to show curiosity towards the world they live in.
They try to explore the world to fulfill their curiosity. This curiosity will lead to
the emergence of initiative. If their initiative is being held back, they will develop
a sense of guilt on their actions or initiative. Too many initiatives could create
problems to children. These initiatives could create chaos since they act only
according to their desire without concerning on the norms which the society
adhered. Both initiative and guilt should equally felt by children. Too many guilt
could also make the child become inferior and restricted. A form of restriction is
inhibition which is the antipathy in this stage. The conflict between initiative and
guilt resulted in a basic strength of purpose. At this age, children starting to have
their purpose in their acts, and they creates their own target in their activities in
4) industry vs. inferiority.
This stage occurs at the school age, from 6 up to 12 or 13 years old. At this
stage, the world which children interact is broader; it includes family, peers,
teachers, and other adult models. In normal development, children try to read and
write, to hunt and fish, or to learn the skills required by their culture. One of the
reasons they did this is because they wanted to get attention and recognition from
their surroundings.
According to Erikson (in Thomas, 1985: 241), children during the elementary school years need and enjoy hours of make-believe games and play, but they become dissatisfied with too much of this and want to do something worthwhile. They want to earn recognition by producing something, to gain the satisfaction of completing work by perseverance.
At this stage children start to judge themselves whether they are competent
or incompetent. If adults give tasks that children have interest in and could
accomplish, and if adult give guidance to children in accomplishing their tasks,
children could become industrious. But if children are being disappointed, such as
being labeled as a failure by teachers or adults, they will become inferior. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. Competence is the confidence
of using physical ability and cognitive to solve the problems occur in school age.
Competence becomes the basis for Cooperative participation in adult‟s productive
life (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 256). If the industry and inferiority are not
balance, children tend to give up easily and spend more time on unproductive
5) identity vs. role confusion.
This stage occurs in the adolescence age. A period starting from puberty
up to young adulthood (14-18). Erikson gave great attention on his writings on
this stage than at any other stages (Thomas, 1985: 242). This stage considered to
be important because at this stage children have to search for their identity. If they
do not find their true identity and purpose they would be confused in the next
stages about their roles. Children at this stage started to find the roles which are
appropriate for them and practice the roles which they think best for them, while
struggling in the search of identity. So, adolescence is considered as the age of
trial and error (Feist and Feist, 2008: 256).
During this stage, the experiences of the previous stages give benefits to
the development in the age of adolescent.
The sense of ego identity, then, is the accrued confidence that one‟s ability to maintain inner sameness and continuity is matched by the sameness and continuity of one‟s meaning for others. Thus, self -esteem…grows to be a conviction that one is learning effective steps toward a tangible future, that one is developing a defined personality within a social reality which one understands (Erikson in Thomas, 1985: 242)
The dystonic element of this stage is role confusion. Youth at this stage is
being confused of their identity and purpose. To overcome this problem,
sometimes they identify themselves to their surroundings that they treated as their
idol. In addition, they join some groups or gangsters which they think fit them.
After they identify themselves with their surroundings, they then stereotype
themselves in their style of speech, body language, and fashion. Sometimes this
because they think that the ideals or point of view which is different to the one
they believe is wrong. Another effect of identity confusion is shown in forms of
diffidence or defiance ( Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259).
5) intimacy vs. isolation.
This stage occurs in the young adulthood. This stage occurs from 19-30
years of age. At this stage, young adults experience a psychosocial crisis between
intimacy and isolation. Intimacy is the syntonic element and isolation is the
dystonic element of young adulthood stage. Intimacy could be defined as the
ability to fuse one‟s identity with another without worrying to lose its own
identity (Feist and Feist, 2008: 259). Intimacy could only be achieved after a
person succeeded in forming a stable ego. A stable intimacy could lead to a
serious relationship with others, since he/she knows the responsibility or the role
he/she has to fulfill in a true relationship that is by showing affection and
commitment to his/her partner. Isolation is the dystonic element of this stage.
According to Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259) isolation is “the incapacity to
take chances with one‟s identity by sharing true intimacy”.
The conflict between intimacy versus isolation emerges the basic strength
called love. It is the sense of care which mature male and female have (Erikson in
Feist and Feist, 2008: 260). In a relationship, isolation still occurs because an
individual has a right to have his/her own privacy which should be hidden from
the partner, and this degree of isolation is required in keeping his/her own identity
The antipathy of love is exclusivity. Although exclusivity is considered as
the pathology of this stage, it is needed in a certain degree in order to maintain
one‟s identity from fusing or losing due to a relationship/interaction with others.
Although exclusivity is needed in a certain degree, the reason it is considered as
the pathology of this stage is due to its negative effect that is causing people to be
lacking of teamwork and communication which is required in building an intimate
relationship.
6) generativity vs. stagnation.
This stage occurs in adulthood, in the age of 31 up to 60 years old.
Generativity versus stagnation occurs at this stage. Erikson defined generativity as
the generation of new beings, new products, and new ideas (Erikson in Feist and
Feist, 2008: 260). So, in this stage, adults started to show their attention to their
surroundings by guiding the next generation, raising children, creating new
products, and creating new ideas. This shows that a person is changing from
becoming a child who previously received something from their surroundings,
such as being cared by their parents, to being an adult who gives their contribution
for their surroundings.
As stated previously, the stages in Erikson‟s psychosocial stages influence
one another. At this stage, generativity grows due to the previously stages such as
young adulthood and adolescent. In young adulthood, a person needs intimacy in
be achieved if someone agrees and able to fuse his/her ego with his/her partner,
whereas, in adulthood, fusing ego identity with a broader scope is essential.
The antithesis of generativity is self-absorption and stagnation.
Self-absorption and stagnation are interconnected to each other. As an example, adults
who are not willing to show their attention towards their surroundings or who
only care about them would be stagnate.
The conflict between generativity versus stagnation would result in the
emergence of „care‟ which is the basic strength of adulthood. Erikson defined
„care‟ as a commitment that continuously broadens to take care of the persons,
products, and ideas, but previously he/she has to learn to care for (Erikson in Feist
and Feist, 2008: 261). The antipathy of care is rejectivity, the pathology of
adulthood. Rejectivity is the unwillingness to care for person or particular groups
(Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261).
7) integrity vs. despair.
This stage occurs in the old age, around 60 and above. At this stage, a
person will experience integrity versus despair. At this stage, a person starts to
lose his/her productivity, but he/she can still take part in being care and guiding
others due to his/her experiences in the past years. Despair which is the dystonic
quality at this age often emerge due to some external factors such as losing
partner, losing friends, losing physical strength, etc. Due to this condition, a
(Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 262). But if a person has a strong ego identity,
the syntonic quality of integrity may dominate.
The conflict between integrity and despair resulted in wisdom, which is
the basic virtue of this stage. Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 263) defined
wisdom as “informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death
itself”. Although the mental and physical ability have decline, the wisdom which a
person has at this stage could contribute in educating and guiding the next
[image:38.595.111.524.360.746.2]generation. The Antipathy of wisdom is disdain.
Table 1: Erikson‟s Psychosocial Crisis Theory of Human Development.
No. Age Psychosocial Crisis Basic
Strength
Core Pathology
1. Infancy
(1st year) Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Withdrawal
2. Early Childhood (Age 2-3)
Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt Will Compulsion
3. Play Age
(Age 3-5) Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Inhibition
4. School Age (Age 6-13)
Industry vs.
Inferiority Competence Inertia
5. Adolescence (Age 14-18)
Identity vs. Role
Confusion Fidelity
Role
Repudiation
6. Young Adulthood (Age 19-30)
Intimacy vs.
Isolation Love Exclusivity
7. Adulthood
(Age 31-60)
Generativity vs.
Stagnation Care Rejection
8. Old Age
3. Abuse
a. Definition of abuse
According to the Community Against Violence, Inc. (2016) Abuse is an
action which intimidates harms, manipulates a person‟s mind, and results in
physical or psychological damage. Abuse may occur anywhere. It may occur in
high-educated or low-educated society, in high economic or low economic
classes, in any races and religions, in families or in the neighborhood. Abuse also
could be done by both men and women. Many viewed child sexual abuse as a
male crime. However, significant minorities of children are abused by female
(Turton, 2008: 1).
In the year 2000, more than three-quarters of a million children were
abused and neglected. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, the victims of abuse may suffer from learning problems, depression, and
stress disorders. Beside psychological problems, physical problems such as
wounds may occur due to abuse. Generally, there are four types of abuses; they
are physical, psychological maltreatment, neglect, and sexual abuse (Corby, 2006:
86).
b. Types of abuse 1) physical abuse.
Today in the United States, psychologists, social workers, and the judicial
system generally define physical child abuse as “the non-accidental injury of a
guardian, babysitter, or nanny)” (Olive, 2007: 53-54). Physical abuse may include
striking, hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, shaking, slapping, kicking, pinching,
and burning. In addition, inappropriate use of drugs and physical restraints,
force-feeding, and physical punishment of any kind also are examples of physical abuse.
The younger the child is, the more helpless the child when suffering from abuse.
2) psychological maltreatment.
Psychological maltreatment or psychological abuse is a continuing acts or
behaviors of the abusers in a purpose to be destructive to a person (Olive, 2007:
67). It is usually shown in a form of rejection, terrorization, isolation, corruption,
etc. Psychological abuse could be done verbally and non-verbally. An example of
verbal abuse is swearing. Although swearing does not leave any physical marks to
a person, but mentally it does. Non-verbal abuse includes rejection, isolation,
terrorization, and corruption. Another purpose of psychological abuse is to control
a person or to manipulate a person in order for the abused to follow the abuser‟s
wishes. Hart, Brassard, and Karlson (in Howe, 2005: 94-6) stated the six major
subtypes of psychological maltreatment, they are:
a) Spurning: humiliating and causing shame to the child
b) Terrorizing: threatening to hurt, abandon, or kill the child to make the child
behave or do what the abusers wants. Sometimes a child might be placed in a
c) Isolating: keeping the child away from other people/group such as keeping
away from their friends or not letting them go to school. Children might be
kept in room most of the time.
d) Exploiting and corrupting: encourages children to become anti-social,
destructive, and lack of moral.
e) Denying the child emotional responsiveness: The parents do not want to
respond to their children‟s need of love and attention. Whenever their
children need their parents‟ attention and praise, the parents refuse to give it.
f) Failing to meet the child‟s medical and health needs: This is an abuse occurs
when parents do not want to provide medical need for children when needed.
3) neglect.
According to Olive (2007: 67) neglect is an act of parents being ignorant
to children that could cause harm to children. Neglect can be physical (not giving
food and clothing), medical (not giving medical treatment when needed),
educational (not giving enough formal nor non-formal education), motor (not
giving child toys or puzzles to play in order to develop motor skills), and
emotional (not giving and showing love to children). Neglect occurs when a
caregiver did not provide the basic needs to a child who is/are responsible to.
Caregivers/parents who could be categorized as neglectful are when they have the
capability of caring a child/elder but refuse to do so. “In some cases „neglect
connect with others or explore the world‟” (Erickson and Egeland in Howe, 2005:
111).
4) sexual abuse.
Sexual child abuse is an abuse which is done by an adult towards a child
which involves sexual activity. The sexual activity can include kissing, touching
the breasts, buttocks, or genitals, and sexual intercourse (Olive, 2007: 78). In a
sexual abuse, the abuser is the one who wanted to do the sexual activity. On the
other hand, the victim or the child does not have the same interest to do so. This
difference in interest could lead the abuser to force the victim to fulfill his/her act.
Later this action will be called rape. Besides being done physically, sexual abuse
may also be done mentally such as exposing the genital to the victim, taking a
picture of a person while forced being naked, and speaking of sexual activities.
c. Causes of the abuses
The abuses which happen have several causes. According to Olive (2007)
and Corby (2006), there are several causes which leads to the act of abuse such as
parents having stress problems, lack of interrelationship between the parents or
caregivers and the child, poverty, the vulnerability of the abused, drugs and
alcohol, parent‟s divorce, the environment of the abusers, gender inequality, and
1) parents having stress problems.
Dubanoski et al (in Corby, 2006: 164) stated that high level of stress is one
of the causes of physical abuse. Those who lack of stress management control
which may occur due to stress they get from their works may release their
frustration towards children. If this frustration occurs continuously, parents or
caregivers may abuse their children. As an example, a caregiver or a mother who
works all day long may feel frustrated if her child keeps on asking for studying
assistance during the night since the mother felt tired. As a result, the mother
would abuse her child physically by slapping the child. Some believe that
parenting is a tiresome duty. They believe that taking care of their children does
not bring any benefits to them. Since they do not have any benefit and felt
unrewarded from raising a child, they may insult their child.
2) lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child.
Lacking of interrelationship between both parents and children could make
the child defiant or disobedient (Olive, 2007: 54). The more disobedient the child
becomes, the more frustration the parent feel. Again, this anger and frustration
leads to abuse. As an example, if a parent views his or her child as someone who
is naughty and lack of manner, he/she may strike the child. The cycle of
misbehavior and abuse is called the interactional process (Olive, 2007: 54). There
3) poverty.
Poverty is one of the causes of abuse and neglect ( Olive, 2007: 68).
Gilhan and his colleagues (in Corby, 2006: 131) discovered that there is a
correlation between male unemployment and physical abuse of children in a
survey of nearly 7,000 cases in Strathclyde in the early 1990‟s. People who are in
low economic level felt more stress than those in stable financial conditions. The
greater the level of stress, the greater the possibility of abuse will occur. The 1996
National Incidence study found that children from poor families were likely to
experience abuses than other classes above (Sediak and Broadhurst in Corby
2006: 131). Although some lower class family experience neglect, middle and
higher class family may also experience neglect, but it is more likely to be
experienced by lower class family. Those in the low economic level sometimes
run into alcohol or drug to relief themselves from stress due to poverty. Parents
who suffer from stress due to poverty may have less interest in nurturing their
children and may also abuse them.
4) the vulnerability of the abused.
Those with young age are easier in risk of being abuse by parents or
caregivers. This happens because children at young ages, commonly three or
younger, are defenseless and weak physically. This makes it easier for adults to
abuse them. According to the U.S.Department of Health and Human Services in
the year 2004, “children age three or younger experienced the highest rate of
experienced by pre-puberty abuse victims than adolescence victims (Russell in
Corby, 2006: 205).
5) drugs and alcohol.
Children of alcoholics or drug addicts are often psychologically
damaged by their parents‟ abuse and the attention it takes away from them. In
Britain, children who lived with alcoholic parents may suffer from behavioral
problems, school problems, emotional disturbances, lower self-esteem, anxiety,
depression, and disrupted routines which are the effects of substance abuse (Kroll
and Taylor in Corby, 2006: 142).
6) parent‟s divorce.
When a parent has to take care of a child by themselves, he/she might feel
more stressful since it would make his/her life more difficult. By taking care of a
child alone could increase his/her burden. This will lead parent to abuse the child
psychologically. Factor such as parental divorce can cause parents to direct their
inability to cope with stressors toward the children (Olive, 2007: 68).
7) the environment of the abusers.
Adults who live in unhealthy environments are likely not learning to take
care a child properly (Olive, 2007: 68). Parents or caregivers who neglect their
children tend to be isolated and do not have many friends. They do not have
adequate knowledge in caring for their children. According to a study done by
of isolation, they are number of network contacts, the amount of received support
and the parents‟ perception of that support. She found that isolation and neglect
have strong correlation.
8) gender inequality.
According to Olive (2007: 81) majority 95 to 98 percent of people who
sexually abuse children are male with victims of both male and female. Another
prove was stated by Finkelhor (in Corby, 2006: 127) that 95 percent of girls and
80 percent of boys In the United States are sexually abused by males. So, males
are more likely to perform such abuse. Between 1980 and 1986, 8 out of 411
children were sexually abused by females, according to a report from the Great
Osmond Street Hospital for sick children. It means that male dominates in the act
of sexual abuse (Ben Tovim et al. in Corby, 2006:127). The sexual abuses
launched by men over women are the media for gaining control over women
(Dominelli in Corby, 2006: 175). Sexual abuse is also seen as an example of
institutionalized male power over females (Corby, 2006: 175).
9) abusers‟ past experience.
As a result of being abused in his/her lives, the ex-victims of abuse wanted
to satisfy or express their lust of power and control which they could not fulfill
when being abused. These abusers look for a medium of fulfilling their lust that is
by abusing children. An example is in the case of sexual abuse, according to
molesters reported some form of sexual trauma in childhood”. Lewis et al (in
Corby, 2006: 194) also found that adults who offend and abuse children had been
violently abused themselves.
d. Effects of the abuses
The abuses which occurs and experienced by the victims could leads to
several effects. According to Olive (2007), Corby (2006), Hunter (2014), Gold,
Sullivan, and Lewis (in the Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013) Stated that
there are several effects of the abuses such as physical wound in certain area of
the body, having difficulties in coping with anger, difficulties in studying,
difficulties in socializing, poor physical health, juvenile delinquency and adult
crime, consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic, and genophobia.
1) physical wound in certain area of the body.
Bruises might be the result of physical abuse or due to other conditions.
Bruises are common in active, healthy children. However, bruises are also a
common finding in abused children (Thompson in AIFS, 2014). Bruises in certain
area of the body such as bruises with particular imprints of belt mark, iron mark,
bite mark, or broom mark certainly are the result of physical abuse. Broken bones
also are a result of physical abuse (Olive, 2007: 55). While bruises around the
genital area, bruised around the breast for girls, transmitted disease, and anal
bleeding are due to sexual abuse. In their research, Jaudes and Morris (in Corby,
hospital between 1979 and 1987, found that one-third of the children had sexually
transmitted disease.
2) having difficulties in coping with anger.
The victims of abuse sometimes have difficulties in coping with anger.
Their anger are sometimes buried deep inside their hearts and not expressed freely
since the victims are afraid to do so in front of the abusers. As a consequence,
abused victims may lose control of their anger. “A physically abused child who
becomes angry over something may show physical aggression toward other
children, animals, or adults” (Olive, 2007: 57).
3) difficulties in studying.
Some victims of abuse find difficulties in studying. Abuse and neglect in
the early life could affect the infants‟ development in the areas of speech and
language (Wolfe in AIFS, 2014). When the victims of abuse enter preschool or
kindergarten, learning problems show up as poor performance in school (Olive,
2007: 57). Research also shows that maltreated children have lower educational
achievement than other children (Gilbert et al in AIFS, 2014).
4) difficulties in socializing.
The victims of abuse may have difficulties in socializing and trusting other
people (Olive, 2007: 58). Since they often suffer from abuse, they began not to
socializing with others; they feel worried by their surroundings. The victims of
abuse also feel being unwanted and unloved. They began to think that they are not
worthy living in this world and would be useless for other people. This belief
makes them avoid social interactions. Difficulties in socializing also may be due
to the result of the treatments and the lack of attention given by the parents.
5) poor physical health.
Poor physical health is due to the lack of attention given by the parents or
caregivers. Neglected children are not being taught by their parents how to take
care of their health. As a result they suffer from various diseases. Children who
are neglected may suffer from diabetes, malnutrition and lung problems (Widom,
et al., in AIFS, 2014).
6) juvenile delinquency and adult crime.
Adult who suffer from abuse in his/her childhood may grow up into
criminals (Olive, 2007: 69). Studies found the correlation between child abuse and
crime in the previous stages. Children who suffer from abuse are nine times more
likely to involve in crime (Gold, Sullivan, & Lewis in the Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2013). “Prospective studies showed that about 20 per cent
7) consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic.
The victims of abuse may turn into an alcoholic person or consuming
illegal drugs (Olive, 2007: 69). These are done in order to escape from the bitter
world they live in, since alcohol and drugs could make them lose their
consciousness and feel more relax in a certain way. (Cohen et al (in Corby, 2006:
193) found that 178 US and Australian hospital patients of drug and alcohol
addicts found that 84 per cent of the patients were the victims of physical abuse
and neglect in their childhood.
8) genophobia.
Victims of sexual abuse may have phobias due to sex (Olive, 2007: 80).
Genophobia is a term used for the trauma of sex (taken from
http://www.allaboutcounseling.com/library/genophobia-coitophobia/.) Those who
suffer from genophobia may be people who suffer from sexual abuse in his/her
previous age. Those who suffer from genophobia might be panic or disgust when
they are open to sexual activities. Briere et al (in Corby, 2006: 201) found that
women who are sexually abused in childhood are twice more likely to experience
fear, anxiety, and nightmares.
B. Previous Research Findings
There are three works of thesis in the English Language and Literature
Study Program of the State University of Yogyakarta which used Erikson‟s
The Cause and Effect in Melinda’s Traumatic Experiences: A Psychosocial
Analysis in Anderson’s Speak which was written in 2014. In this research, she
focuses on how sexual harassment affects Melinda‟s psychological condition and
how is the impact toward her psychosocial development.
The second thesis is Eka Setiawati‟s thesis entitled The Psychological
Effects of World War II on Ira Hayes and John Bradley’s Characters in James
Bradley’s Flags of Our Fathers. This thesis was written in 2011. It focuses on
identifying the psychological changes of the characters in Flags of Our Fathers as
the effect of traumatic experience in war.
The third thesis is Irsha Karisha Puspitasari‟s thesis entitled Esperanza’s
Personality Development as Reflected in Sandra Cisneros’ the House on Mango
Street. This thesis was written in 2012. This research focuses on identifying the
personality development of Esperanza and the factors that affects her personality.
The theory used by the previous researchers is similar to this research;
they used Erik Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. Although the theory which is used
is similar, the focuses of the other three previous researches are different. The first
research focuses on the effects of sexual harassment towards a character‟s
psychological condition and psychosocial development. Then, the second research
focuses on identifying psychological changes due to traumatic experience in war.
The third research focuses on identifying personality development of a character
and the factors that affect the personality. Meanwhile, this research focuses on
finding the types, the causes, the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess and the
C. Conceptual Framework
Tess Stevens Sold is an autobiography which tells the lives of Tess being
abused by her mother. Many types of abuse are experienced by Tess throughout
her lives mostly in her childhood. Besides being abused by her mother, Tess is
also abused by her stepfather, caregiver, school teacher, friends, and partners, and
the punters. This research analyzes the abuses, the causes which Tess experienced,
and its effects in general and on her personality development.
This research uses the mimetic approach because the characters or the
setting in a literary work is an imitation of the reality. Psychology of literature is
used because psychology and literature contains a similarity that it focuses on
analyzing human being. Since both psychology and literature focus on analyzing
humans, and literature reflects the reality, the mimetic approach is appropriate to
be used in this research.
The researcher used Erikson‟s psychosocial development theory in
conducting this research. According to this theory human undergoes eight
psychosocial stages. The stages are infancy, early childhood, play age, school age,
adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, and old age. In each of these stages
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Mimetic Literature Psychology of Literature Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory of the Development
Stages:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role
Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs.
Stagnation
8. Integrity vs. Despair
Research Question 4. What are the effects of
the abuses on Tess‟ personality development? Abuse Theories by
Corby, Howe, Olive, Turton, Harris, Hunter,
Community Against Violence, Inc., Child Welfare Information
Gateway, and allaboutcounseling.com.
Research Question 3. What are the effects of the abuses experienced
by Tess? Research Question 1.
What abuses are experienced by Tess?
Research Question 2. What are the causes
of the abuses experienced by Tess?
Tess Stevens‟ Sold Human
