xii
ABSTRACT
Kusumaningrum, Maria Asumpta Deny. (2014).
An Analysis of Vocabulary Use
of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
In learning English, vocabulary plays an important role in the second
language learning. In second language learning and teaching, vocabulary
knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a
second language. Students learn vocabulary through textbooks. Furthermore, the
size of their vocabulary determines their language performance. Vocabulary is the
most important element to build their English knowledge and has strong effect on
their future language learning progress. Therefore, vocabulary provided in the
textbook is necessary.
Concerning this issue, this study was designed to look throughout at the
vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School textbook of
English in Focus grade seven. The textbook was published by the government.
There are two problems to be solved in this research: (1) What is the vocabulary
coverage of Junior High School textbook? (2) How the words are recycled?
In this research, the researcher applied corpus based analysis. The
researcher collected the data from the textbook obtained the electronic book from
http://bse.kemdikbud.go.id. The researcher used RANGE and the FREQUENCY
program in order to analyze the data. The program, created by Nation, is available
at http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/Paul_Nation. The RANGE program was used
to answer first research problem, while the FREQUENCY program was used to
answer the second research problem.
The findings showed that all of the chapters have not reached the
appropriate level vocabulary coverage of 95%. Chapter I has the highest level of
vocabulary coverage which covers 94.85%. It means that chapter I is the easiest of
all chapters for students because 94.85% of tokens found in most 2,000 frequent
English words. On the other hand, glossarium has the smallest result of
vocabulary coverage which covers 46.81%. The result of word recycling showed
that only chapter VIII has the highest occurrence numbers in more than ten times.
Overall result of the whole textbook, it needs to be suplemented with other
materials containing more word families and sufficient number of recycling of
each word f
amily, based on students’ needs, characteristics, background
knowledge, and wants. However, the textbook provides a lot of activities which
are familiar to the students.
xiii
ABSTRAK
Kusumaningrum, Maria Asumpta Deny. (2014).
An Analysis of Vocabulary Use
of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, kosa kata merupakan bagian yang penting dalam
pembelajaran bahasa asing. Dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa asing,
pengetahuan kosa kata menajdi inti dalam kompetensi berkomunikasi dan dalam
perolehan pembelajaran. Siswa belajar kosa kata melalui buku. Lagipula, besarnya
kosa kata mempengaruhi kompetensi bahasa mereka. Kosa kata merupakan
elemen yang penting untuk membangun kompetensi Bahasa Inggris dan
mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam perkembangan pembelajaran bahasa
mereka di kemudian hari. Oleh karena itu, kosa kata yang tersedia dibuku sangat
penting.
Menyangkut persoalan di atas, penelitian ini dibuat untuk melihat
keseluruhan besarnya kosa kata dan pengulangan kata di buku SMP kelas tujuh
yang berjudul
English in Focus. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh pemerintah. Ada
dua permasalahan yang dipecahkan dipenelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana besarnya kosa
kata dibuku SMP? (2) Bagaimana pengulangan kosa katanya?
Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti mengaplikasikan analisis berbasis corpus.
Tidak ada instrumen dalam penelitian ini karena peneliti telah mendapatkan data
dari buku yang diakses dari buku elektronik di http://bse.kemdikbud.go.id.
Peneliti menggunakan program RANGE dan FREQUENCY untuk menganalisis
data. Program tersebut diciptakan oleh Nation. Program-program itu diciptakan
oleh
Nation
yang
bisa
didapat
diwebsite
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/Paul_Nation. Program RANGE digunakan untuk
manjawab permasalahan yang pertama, sedangkan program FREQUENCY
digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan yang kedua. Untuk membuat valid
dalam proses analisis, peneliti menerapkan teori dari Nation dan Waring (1997);
Hwang dan Nation (1995); Coady dan Nation (1988).
Data menunjukkan bahwa semua bab belum mencapai tingkat kosa kata
yang sesuai yaitu 95%. Bab I mempunyai tingkat cakupan kosa kata yang paling
tinggi, yaitu 94.85%. Itu berarti bahwa bab I adalah bab yang paling mudah
diantara bab-bab yang lainnya karena 94.85% dari semua kata ditemukan di 2,000
kata Bahasa Inggris yang paling sering muncul. Sebaliknya, glosarium
mempunyai tingkat cakupan kosa kata yang paling rendah, yaitu 46.81%. Hasil
dari pengulangan kata menunjukkan bahwa glosarium yang mempunyai tingkat
pengulangan kata lebih dari sepuluh kali yang paling tinggi. Dari semua hasil
keseluruhan, buku ini menyediakan tingkat kesempatan belajar untuk mendalami
kosa kata yang kurang. Akan tetapi, buku ini menyediakan banyak sekali latihan
yang berhubungan dengan lingkungan siswa.
i
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF
A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum
Student Number: 126332046
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies
Sanata Dharma University
ii
A THESIS
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF
A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
by
Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum
Student Number: 126332046
Approved by
F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
____________________
Thesis Advisor
Yogyakarta, 27
thJanuary 2014
iii
A THESIS
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF
A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
by
Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum
Student Number: 126332046
Defended before the Thesis Committee
and Declared Acceptable
THESIS COMMITTEE
Chairperson : Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A.
_________
Secretary
: F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
_________
Members
: 1. Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D.
_________
2. Dr. J. Bismoko
_________
Yogyakarta, 7
thFebruary 2014
The Graduate School Director
Sanata Dharma University
iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated,
are ideas, phrases, and sentences by the writer. The writer understands the full
consequences inc
luding degree cancellation if she took somebody’s ideas, phrases
or sentences without a proper reference.
Yogyakarta, 7
thFebruary 2014
v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 126332046
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF
A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan. Dengan demikian saya memberikan hak
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan
dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data,
mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media
lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya atau
memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai
penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 7 Februari 2014
Yang menyatakan
vi
“
BELAJARLAH UNTUK MENJADI
rendah hati,
DAN
SEMOGA
ENGKAU
AKAN
LEBIH
MENGERTI
”
I dedicated this thesis to:
Jesus Christ,
My beloved parents,
My fiancé mas Dony,
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My biggest gratefulness and never ending gratitude go to my faithful
companions, Lord Jesus Christ and Mother Mary, for endowing me with splendid
blessings and love.
My deepest gratitude goes to my only one advisor
Mr. F.X. Mukarto,
Ph.D.
for his guidance and assistance during the process, his willingness to spend
his time reading and correcting my thesis patiently, and his advice as well as his
encouragement from the beginning of the research until the final form of this
thesis.
I am also greatly indebted to the lecturers in English Language Studies,
Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S, M.A. (Hons.), Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., Dr. Fr. B.
Alip, M.Pd., M.A., Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., Dr. J. Bismoko and Mr. Widya
Kiswara for their comments, suggestions and support during my study. My
deepest appreciation goes to Mbak Lely for helping and guiding me in the
academic process.
Thanks to all KBI 2012, especially Boti, mbak Sophie, mbak Mayang,
mbak Ririn, Mbak Delfin, Karman for making my days in campus colorful. My
special gratitude goes to Calvin for always remembering me to do this thesis as
soon as possible. I also thank Leonie Irina Mutiara, my co-researcher in doing the
viii
me to make improvements in my thesis. My deepest thanks go to everybody who
has directly or indirectly supported me in writing this thesis.
Profound thankfulness is addressed to my beloved parents,
Bapak
Antonius Sugeng Widodo
and
Ibu Agnes Indarti
, for always supporting me
with magnificient love and care; to my sister
Silviana Danty Kusumaningtyas
,
whose hard work always seems admirable to me; to
Simbah Putri
for the spirit in
life that encourages me to do the best in this life. Appreciation is also addressed to
Stefanus Dony Kurniawan
for always painting my days with laughter, joy, love,
support and prayers.
xii
ABSTRACT
Kusumaningrum, Maria Asumpta Deny. (2014).
An Analysis of Vocabulary Use
of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
In learning English, vocabulary plays an important role in the second
language learning. In second language learning and teaching, vocabulary
knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a
second language. Students learn vocabulary through textbooks. Furthermore, the
size of their vocabulary determines their language performance. Vocabulary is the
most important element to build their English knowledge and has strong effect on
their future language learning progress. Therefore, vocabulary provided in the
textbook is necessary.
Concerning this issue, this study was designed to look throughout at the
vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School textbook of
English in Focus grade seven. The textbook was published by the government.
There are two problems to be solved in this research: (1) What is the vocabulary
coverage of Junior High School textbook? (2) How the words are recycled?
In this research, the researcher applied corpus based analysis. The
researcher collected the data from the textbook obtained the electronic book from
http://bse.kemdikbud.go.id. The researcher used RANGE and the FREQUENCY
program in order to analyze the data. The program, created by Nation, is available
at http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/Paul_Nation. The RANGE program was used
to answer first research problem, while the FREQUENCY program was used to
answer the second research problem.
The findings showed that all of the chapters have not reached the
appropriate level vocabulary coverage of 95%. Chapter I has the highest level of
vocabulary coverage which covers 94.85%. It means that chapter I is the easiest of
all chapters for students because 94.85% of tokens found in most 2,000 frequent
English words. On the other hand, glossarium has the smallest result of
vocabulary coverage which covers 46.81%. The result of word recycling showed
that only chapter VIII has the highest occurrence numbers in more than ten times.
Overall result of the whole textbook, it needs to be suplemented with other
materials containing more word families and sufficient number of recycling of
each word f
amily, based on students’ needs, characteristics, background
knowledge, and wants. However, the textbook provides a lot of activities which
are familiar to the students.
xiii
ABSTRAK
Kusumaningrum, Maria Asumpta Deny. (2014).
An Analysis of Vocabulary Use
of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, kosa kata merupakan bagian yang penting dalam
pembelajaran bahasa asing. Dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa asing,
pengetahuan kosa kata menajdi inti dalam kompetensi berkomunikasi dan dalam
perolehan pembelajaran. Siswa belajar kosa kata melalui buku. Lagipula, besarnya
kosa kata mempengaruhi kompetensi bahasa mereka. Kosa kata merupakan
elemen yang penting untuk membangun kompetensi Bahasa Inggris dan
mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam perkembangan pembelajaran bahasa
mereka di kemudian hari. Oleh karena itu, kosa kata yang tersedia dibuku sangat
penting.
Menyangkut persoalan di atas, penelitian ini dibuat untuk melihat
keseluruhan besarnya kosa kata dan pengulangan kata di buku SMP kelas tujuh
yang berjudul
English in Focus. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh pemerintah. Ada
dua permasalahan yang dipecahkan dipenelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana besarnya kosa
kata dibuku SMP? (2) Bagaimana pengulangan kosa katanya?
Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti mengaplikasikan analisis berbasis corpus.
Tidak ada instrumen dalam penelitian ini karena peneliti telah mendapatkan data
dari buku yang diakses dari buku elektronik di http://bse.kemdikbud.go.id.
Peneliti menggunakan program RANGE dan FREQUENCY untuk menganalisis
data. Program tersebut diciptakan oleh Nation. Program-program itu diciptakan
oleh
Nation
yang
bisa
didapat
diwebsite
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/Paul_Nation. Program RANGE digunakan untuk
manjawab permasalahan yang pertama, sedangkan program FREQUENCY
digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan yang kedua. Untuk membuat valid
dalam proses analisis, peneliti menerapkan teori dari Nation dan Waring (1997);
Hwang dan Nation (1995); Coady dan Nation (1988).
Data menunjukkan bahwa semua bab belum mencapai tingkat kosa kata
yang sesuai yaitu 95%. Bab I mempunyai tingkat cakupan kosa kata yang paling
tinggi, yaitu 94.85%. Itu berarti bahwa bab I adalah bab yang paling mudah
diantara bab-bab yang lainnya karena 94.85% dari semua kata ditemukan di 2,000
kata Bahasa Inggris yang paling sering muncul. Sebaliknya, glosarium
mempunyai tingkat cakupan kosa kata yang paling rendah, yaitu 46.81%. Hasil
dari pengulangan kata menunjukkan bahwa glosarium yang mempunyai tingkat
pengulangan kata lebih dari sepuluh kali yang paling tinggi. Dari semua hasil
keseluruhan, buku ini menyediakan tingkat kesempatan belajar untuk mendalami
kosa kata yang kurang. Akan tetapi, buku ini menyediakan banyak sekali latihan
yang berhubungan dengan lingkungan siswa.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE... ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI
KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS... v
DEDICATION PAGE ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... . xi
ABSTRACT... xii
ABSTRAK... ... xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
... 1
A.
Research Background ... 1
B.
Problem Identification ... 5
C.
Problem Limitation ... 6
D.
Problem Formulation ... 7
E.
Research Objectives ... 8
F.
Research Benefits ... 8
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
... 10
A.
Theoretical Review ... 10
1.
The Nature of Vocabulary Knowledge ... 10
a.
Definition of a Word ... 10
b.
Knowing a Word ... 13
c.
Categories of Word Knowledge... 16
d.
Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge ... 23
e.
Receptive and Productive of Vocabulary Knowledge ... 27
2.
Vocabulary Coverage ... 30
a.
Types and Tokens ... 31
b.
Word Family ... 31
3.
Texbooks... 32
a.
Definition of Textbooks ... 32
b.
Textbooks in School Based Curriculum ... 34
c.
Curriculum of Junior High School ... 35
d.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Textbooks ... 36
4.
Word Recycling ... 40
a.
High Frequency Words ... 41
b.
Academic Words ... 46
c.
Technical Words ... 46
d.
Low Frequency Words ... 46
5.
Corpus ... 49
x
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
... 53
A.
Research Method ... 53
B.
Nature of Data ... 55
C.
Data Analysis ... 56
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
... 58
A.
Vocabulary Coverage of English in Focus ... 58
1.
Vocabulary Coverage of the Whole Textbook ... 59
2.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I ... 64
3.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II ... 65
4.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III ... 66
5.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV ... 68
6.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V ... 69
7.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI ... 70
8.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII ... 71
9.
Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII ... 72
10. Vocabulary Coverage of Glossarium ... 73
B.
Word Recycling in English in Focus ... 77
1.
Vocabulary Recycling in the Textbook ... 78
2.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter I ... 85
3.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter II ... 86
4.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter III ... 86
5.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter IV ... 87
6.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter V ... 88
7.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter VI ... 88
8.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter VII ... 89
9.
Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter VIII ... 90
10.Vocabulary Recycling in Glossarium ... 90
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
... 94
A.
Conclusions ... 94
B.
Recommendations ... 96
xi
LIST OF TABLES
2.1
VKS Elication Scale
–
Self Report Categories ... 15
2.2
Knowing a Word ... 19
2.3
The Group of Lessons for JHS Students ... 34
4.1 Vocabulary Coverage of Whole Parts ... 51
4.2 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I ... 54
4.3 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II ... 55
4.4 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III ... 57
4.5 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV ... 58
4.6 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V ... 59
4.7 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI ... 60
4.8 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII ... 61
4.9 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII ... 63
4.10 Vocabulary Coverage of Glossarium ... 64
4.11 Vocabulary Coverage of each Chapter ... 65
4.12 Learning Opportunity each Chapter ... 66
4.13 The 20 Most Frequent Word Types ... 68
4.14 Recycling of Word Families ... 72
4.15 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter I ... 73
4.16 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter II ... 74
4.17 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter III ... 74
4.18 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter IV ... 75
4.19 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter V ... 76
4.20 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter VI ... 77
4.21 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter VII ... 77
4.22 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter VIII ... 78
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The first chapter contains the background of the study. It explains my
reasons for doing this study, problem identification clarifies the problem that
occured in field which covers the areas being discussed. The problem limitation
will limit the problem in order to explain well and problem formulation is used to
guide in answering the questions. Moreover, research objectives will explain the
purpose of this study and benefits of the research will explicate how this will
support the development of education of English teaching and learning in
Indonesia.
A.
Research Background
The English language is one of the most important communication tools in
the world. As a second or foreign language, English is a necessary subject for all
contexts because of its popularity and importance all over the world. Moreover,
most of English teachers will experience that the biggest component of English
learning activity is vocabulary. It means that when learning English, students must
know the vocabulary. Thus, vocabulary is an essential to English learning and the
foundation of all English skills.
Vocabulary becomes an important aspect
to the second language learning.
There are some reasons why it is important. The first reason is vocabulary
knowledge is crucial to successful communication because vocabulary plays an
students understand the importance of vocabulary and they are eager to learn new
vocabulary items (Leki and Carson, 1994). The last one, vocabulary acquisition
affects language skill’s development. According to Schonell, Meddleton, and
Shaw (1956), a vocabulary of around 2,000 word families needs to be mastered to
provide 95% coverage of informal conversations. In other words, vocabulary is
the key element in second language (English) skills.
Knowing vocabulary is consired necessary for language learners (Schmit
and McCarthy, 1997). Vocabulary expansion is essential for learners to gain
proficiency in English. In second language learning and teaching, vocabulary
knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a
second language. Students learn vocabulary through textbooks; and the size of
their vocabulary determines their language performance. Vocabulary is the most
important element to build their English knowledge and has strong effect on their
future language learning progress. As Ruply, Logan and Nichols (1999) state,
vocabulary is the glue that hold stories, ideas, and content together and it makes
comprehension accessible.
Furthermore, students are required to use English textbook to support their
learning activity. Using English textbook, students will be helped to learn more
vocabulary. In other words, learning vocabulary can be from textbook. Indirectly,
E
nglish textbook will influence students’ vocabulary level.
Students might be
helped by their teachers in selecting many texts to read in language learning tasks.
Those texts can be news articles, short stories, blog entries, and materials
appropriate level in selecting texts is essential for reading tasks to be effective.
Then, it is difficult for teachers in deciding whether the texts are at a suitable level
for their students or not. Some texts may be understood while others are not.
Thus, the coverage of a text may indicate whether or not students are able to
understand written input.
Some researchers have paid attention to vocabulary. According to Read
(2004), studies on second language vocabulary reached a peak in the 1990s and
2000s. Different issues on vocabulary have been the focus of the studies such as
vocabulary size, learning vocabulary and word repetition. A set of research reports
was given by different researchers. A research on vocabulary coverage and
vocabulary recycled also conducted by Mutiara (2014). The difference between
this research and Mutiara’s research is that Mutiara analyzed the vocab
ulary
coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School textbook curriculum 2013;
while this research analyzed a Junior High School textbook curriculum 2006. The
title of her research is Vocabulary Coverage of Junior High School Textbook. The
result showed that the textbook is appropriate for students in the beginning level
of learning English. However, the total number of word family in the textbook is
still far from 2,000 word families. In addition, sufficient number of the recyling is
only found in a low percentage of word families. Thus, the textbook needs to be
suplemented with other materials.
An overview of the research findings covering a set of research reports on
vocabulary coverage was also given by Davies and Face (2006). They conducted a
vocabulary. They consider two different points of view. First, quantitative terms,
they considered what percentage of the vocabulary in the textbooks appears in
standard frequency listings of Spanish vocabulary (vice versa). Second, in
qualitative terms, they considered what type of vocabulary is over-represented and
under-represented in Spanish textbooks. Corpus was used in their research to
know the percentage of the vocabulary in the textbooks. They chose the textbooks
to be analyzed based on the textbooks that were fairly widespread use.
Alberding (2006) also did research on vocabulary level of a textbook in
Japanese universities. The result shows that the textbook covers appropriate
vocabulary level for students. However, the textbook is not enough vocabulary
items and repetition for a year-long course. Thus, it needs supplementary
materials in order to improve students’ vocabulary level.
Another research
conducted by Matsuoka and Hirsh (2010) on analysis of an ELT textbook. The
result shows that the textbook provides minimal opportunities for students to
develop vocabulary knowledge beyond frequency and academic words. Thus,
supplement with an extensive reading program and other programs with rich input
to promote vocabulary development are needed.
Considering some previous research in the field of vocabulary coverage,
this research also discusses vocabulary coverage. In this research, the researcher
will discuss vocabulary coverage in Junior High School textbook entitled English
in Focus. From the explanation above, it is clearly seen that vocabulary takes an
important role in studying English especially for students. It is because they
even from university. Facing English all the time, students are familiar with
vocabulary. It means that they should always improve their size of vocabulary in
order to follow their English need. If they could not improve their vocabulary
size, they would not be able to follow their English lesson well.
Considering the problem above, the researcher is going to look at the
vocabulary of English Junior High School textbook. This research is based on a
corpus study. This study does not attempt to judge of textbook quality, but to find
the vocabulary used in the textbook, with the hope that future studies will improve
on the methodology used. This research can also be used as a way to help in
analyzing the overall quality of textbook and help to create better English material
for students.
B.
Problem Identification
As stated in the background, vocabulary mastery is seen as the main
element for students to the success of second language learning. It is because
vocabulary mastery covers the ability to understand the vocabulary (receptive
knowledge) and to use the vocabulary in the proper term (productive knowledge).
It means that if students do not master vocabulary well, they will find difficulty in
following their learning activity. In other words
, students’ inadequate vocabulary
makes the receptive and productive English difficult to improve. In order that the
condition does not hinder students’ success in learning English, there must be an
effort to enlarge students’ vo
cabulary. The effort must be done seriously so that
the students have an adequate vocabulary. The students will be encouraged in
To know how many vocabulary items (word families) that the students used, the
researcher will analyze using textbook. The texbook will represent the vocabulary
that the students learn. From the textbook, it can be seen the vocabulary appears
and used by the students.
C.
Problem Limitation
The researcher will limit the problem in order to be able to explain well. It
is impossible for the researcher to study all parts of vocabulary because of the
limited time, finances and ability of the researcher. Vocabulary learning can be
viewed in two dimensions, breadth and depth (Qian, 2002; Read, 1988; Wesche &
Paribakht, 1996). Breadth of vocabulary knowledge refers to the number of words
one has at least superficial knowledge of (one’s vocabulary coverage) and can b
e
calculated in terms of recognition, recall or production of vocabulary items. Depth
of vocabulary knowledge, on the other hand, refers to how well one knows a
word. Although increasing both breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge is
regarded as important to improving reading comprehension (Qian, 1999, 2002;
Read, 1993), breadth has attracted more attention than depth in L2 empirical
studies to date. Accordingly, the aim of this research is to focus on analyzing
textbook provides for promoting breadth of vocabulary knowledge.
To answer the second research question, namely,
“H
ow are the words
recycled?”
the researcher will limit the problem about word recycled. The word
recycled is a favorable condition in vocabulary learning (Nation, 2001). Research
on the effect of word recycling on vocabulary learning has focused on three
repetitions. However, this research only focuses on the number of repetition (word
recycling) to make a deep discussion.
In order to analyze how representative the vocabulary presented in English
textbooks, the researcher only focuses on one Junior High School textbook. It is
the English textbook of curriculum 2006 published by the government. Since the
limitation of time, the researcher only analyzes one level of Junior High School
English textbook in the first grade.
To get the data, the researcher analyzed the textbook. Masuhara (1998)
states that teachers who conduct the process of textbook selection consider
students, teachers and administrators’ needs and wants.
In Indonesia, there are a
lot of textbooks published and some of them have been recommended to be used
at school by the government based on the Ministry of National Decree.
Considering most of schools will use English in Focus textbook published by the
government, this research will analyze it. This research only focuses on one
textbook in order to get sharper investigation and discussion. Although this
textbook is for curriculum 2006, some of schools still use this textbook. This
research tries to elaborate the vocabulary items used in the textbook to help
teachers make decisions in using the textbook to support students’ learning
activity.
D.
Problem Formulation
Based on the background, there are two problems addressed in this
research. They are:
2.
How are the words recycled?
E.
Research Objectives
It is a
qualitative research which was intended to know the students’
mastery in vocabulary represented by textbook. The purpose of the study is to
assign how are the percentage of vocabulary coverage and word recycled in
English Junior High School textbook. It aims to find out the number of types,
tokens, and word families in JHS textbook. Moreover, it also explains the words
recycled and in what context. Eventually, it can interpret whether the vocabulary
meets JHS students’ need or not.
Therefore, considering the formulation of the
problem,
the researcher determines two objectives in the study. They are to find
out:
1.
The vocabulary coverage of a Junior High School textbook.
2.
How the words are recycled.
After seeing the vocabulary coverage and words recycling in JHS
textbooks, teachers should have enough consideration to the content of certain
English textbooks, especially the vocabulary.
F.
Research Benefits
This research would delve into the vocabulary coverage and its recycling
in the English Junior High School textbook. Scientifically, the result of the study
may show how vocabulary coverage and word recycling represented in the
textbook become an important and decisive factor in second language learning,
Practically, this research is beneficial for both students and teachers.
Moreover, this research is also beneficial for the next researchers and government.
For students, the research helps the students to know their vocabulary size. For
teachers, this research, hopefully, will be useful for the teachers so that by
knowing the vocabulary coverage and its recycling, teachers can use the best
method in their learning activity. By finding the appropriate strategy in the
learning process, the teachers can help their students in improving their
vocabulary they have. For the next researchers, this research also helps the next
researchers or anyone who feels interested in the same study. By reading this
research, they can be supported and guided to do their research. And for the
government, this research can also be used for government to evaluate the
textbook. By reading this research, the government can evaluate whether the
10
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter consists of two major parts, namely theoretical review and
theoretical framework. In the first part, the researcher would like to present and
clarify the review of related theories which include the nature of vocabulary
knowledge, vocabulary coverage, textbooks, word recycling and corpus. By the
end of this chapter, the researcher presents the framework of the theories which
gives theoretical answer for the research problems.
A.
Theoretical Review
This section covers the discussion about the nature of vocabulary,
vocabulary coverage, textbooks, word recycling and corpus.
1.
The Nature of Vocabulary Knowledge
This section will begin with the existing definitions of a word. Then it is
continued to the discussion of knowing a word, word knowledge, breadth and
depth of vocabulary knowledge, and receptive and productive vocabulary
knowledge.
a.
Definitions of a Word
It is important to know what a word is when we are discussing vocabulary.
There are three definitions of a word according to Carter. The first definition is an
arthographic definition (Carter, 1998: 4). The definition is based on its system of
spelling. A word is defined as any sequence of letters including a limited number
space or punctuation mark. Carter gives further explanation that arthographic
definition has some problems related to word inflections including the use of
affixes and the same form of word which carries more than one meaning. This
definition only focuses on the form of the word excluding the meaning which is
an important aspect of word.
The second definition of a word which is stated by Carter is the minimum
unit of language. According to Carter (1998: 5), a word is the minimum
meaningful unit of language. Although this definition is more precise, it assumes
an overt relation between individual words and the concept of meaning. The
problem in this definition is on particular meanings which are carried by more
than one word. It is not easy to determine whether they should be regarded as one
word or more than one word.
The third definition according to Carter is related to its pronunciation. The
definition is that a word will not have more than one stressed syllable (Carter,
1998: 6). The problem in this definition is on the words, for example, prepositions
and conjunctions are not usually stressed.
The most well-known definition of a word is given by Poole (1999: 10)
who defines a word as a minimum free form. It implies that a word is a smallest
unit of language which has its own meaning or which can stand by itself. It is the
most famous description. However, Aitchison (1999: 56) gives a definition related
to spoken language. According to Aitchison, it is a quite unsatisfactory
description because words cannot easily defined. There is still not any clear cut
theoretical terms or for different applied linguistics (Read, 2000: 17). Carter
(1998: 5-6) states that defining a word is difficult. Carter lists some problems
encountered in defining a word, namely; (1) orthographic, free-form or stressed
based definition is meaningful, but there are many words which do not match the
categories, (2) defining a word as unit of meaning produces various exception and
seems unclear and asymmetrical, (3) different forms of words are not necessarily
regarded as different words, (4) the same form of words can have distinct and
discrete meanings, and (5) the existing idioms disturb the effort of defining words.
Apart from these phenomena, it seems that one thing must get more attention in
the context of vocabulary learning, therefore, identifying what is involved in
knowing a word rather than knowing what a word means.
b.
Knowing a Word
In order to get clearer insight of a word, it is necessary to know the aspects
of word knowledge. Generally, the discussions of what is meant by knowing a
word emphasize the knowledge of word forms, their meanings, and their
linguistics features, and the ability to use words in different modalities and varied
linguistic settings (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997: 310). Furthermore, word
knowledge has also been described as consisting of some components. Richards
(1976: 83) suggests some features of assumptions of word knowledge. He states
that knowing a word entails: (1) knowing the degree of probability of
encountering that word in speech or print and the sort of words most likely to be
found associated with the word. This assumption suggests that word knowledge
knowing the limitations imposed on the use of the word according to variations of
function and situation, (3) knowing a word means knowing the syntactic
behaviour associated with the word. This shows that knowledge of word
comprises the understanding of relationships between specific grammatical
features and the word, (4) knowing a word entails knowledge of the underlying
form of a word and the derivations that can be made from it. This feature implies
that knowledge of words involves the knowledge of word inflections and the use
of affixes, (5) knowing a word entails knowledge of the network of associations
between that word and other words in the language. This indicates that lexical
knowledge includes the understanding of the association between the word and
other words, (6) knowing a word means knowing the semantic value of a word,
and (7) knowing a word means knowing many of the different meanings
associated with a word. This covers the understanding of various meaning based
on the context in which the word is used. The seven aspects provide clear points
that must be considered in learning vocabulary.
It is reasonable that vocabulary is related to all language learning and
learners usually want to increase their store of vocabulary, regarding it as a
measure of their language improvement (Jordan, 1997: 149). The learners tend to
view vocabulary mastery as meaningful development in their learning. It indicates
that vocabulary knowledge is very important for them to evaluate their progress in
learning second language. Thus, it is necessary for them to know what skills
involved in knowing a word. Wallace (1982) as cited by Jordan (1997: 150)
spoken or written form, (b) recall it at will, (c) relate it to an appropriate object or
concept, (d) use it in the appropriate grammatical form, (e) pronounce it in a
recognizable way, (f) spell it correctly, (g) use it with the words it correctly goes
with (collocation), (h) use it at the appropriate level of formality and (i) be aware
of its connotations and associations. The description also covers the knowledge of
form, meaning and use of words.
Paribakht and Wesche (1997: 180) describe five stages of vocabulary
knowledge as reflected in their Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS). The VKS is
originally used to elicit self-perceived and demonstrated knowledge of specific
word in written text (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997: 179). The five stages in the VKS
illustrate the steps of learners‟ vocabulary development. The first two stages rely
on honest reporting by the learners of test takers (Read, 2000: 132). Stage I of
vocabulary development indicates that the word is totally unknown. At this stage
the learners recognize neither the word nor the meaning. At Stage II of vocabulary
development, however, the word is identified but the meaning is not recognized.
This stage is a little higher than Stage I although the learners still do not know the
meaning of the word. The next two stages, Stage III and Stage IV, indicate that
the learners know both the word and its meaning. The difference between the two
stages is on the degree of learners‟ convict
ion about the meaning of the word.
Learners‟ confidence of the word meaning at Stage IV is higher than that of at
Stage III, in that stage the learners confidently mention the meaning of the word.
Stage V is different from the previous four stages. The difference can be seen in
moved to productive knowledge of vocabulary. At this stage the learners are able
to use the word in a sentence. The five stages or categories are shown in Table 2.1
[image:30.595.99.520.190.510.2]below:
Table 2.1 VKS elicitation scale
–
self report categories
Source: Paribakht and Wesche (1997: 180)
c.
Categories of Word Knowledge
Nation (1990) points out the different categories of word knowledge. He
identifies four categories of word knowledge as shown in Table 2.1. According to
Nation, knowing a word means; (1) knowing its form, (2) knowing its position,
(3) knowing its function, and (4) knowing its meaning. Firstly, knowledge of
word includes the knowledge of word form. This category covers both the spoken
and written form of the word. It comprises three aspects, namely, knowledge of
the spoken form, knowledge of the written form and knowledge of word parts.
Knowing the spoken form of the word includes being able to recognize the word
when it is heard and being able to produce the spoken form in order to express a
meaning (Nation, 2001: 40). When the learners know the spoken form of a word,
Self-report categories
I I don‟t remember having seen this word before.
II I have seen this word before, but I don‟t know what it means.
III I have seen this word before, and I think it means --- (synonym or translation)
IV I know this word. It means ---. (synonym or translation)
V I can use this word in a sentence: ---. (Write a sentence)
it means that they are able not only to catch the spoken word but also to
pronounce the word, including the particularly-stressed syllables in the word.
Knowing the written form of the word is mainly related to the spelling of
the word. One aspect of gaining familiarity with the written form of words is
spelling (Nation, 2001: 44). It means that knowledge of word spelling is the centre
of knowing the written form of the word. Furthermore, Nation argues that the
ability to spell is most strongly influenced by the way learners represent the
phonological structure of the language. It implies that the knowledge of sound
system of the language underlies learners‟ capability to represent the spoken form
of words into the written form. He also insists that the spoken form of words can
be represented in learners‟ memory in different ways: as whole wor
ds, as onsets
(the initial letter or letters) and rhymes (the final part of syllable), as letter names,
and as phonemes.
The last aspect of knowing word form is the knowledge of word parts. It is
closely related to morphology, the internal structure of words and the rules by
which words are formed. Knowledge of a language implies knowledge of its
morphology (Fromkin, David Blair & Peter Collins, 2000: 66). It involves the
understanding of affixes and stems in making up the words. This may help the
learners learn both the meaning and the form of the words because of the fact that;
the affixes often have their own meaning. For example, the prefixes il-, im-, ir-,
dis-, and un- carry negative meaning of the word. The specific meaning they carry
may facilitate language learners to store the meaning in mind. And, some other
suffixes
–
en, -ize, -ate, and
–
ify change an adjective into a verb. In addition, there
are also some affixes forming noun, such as; -ion, -ment, -ness, -dom, -ity, -er/-or,
-ant, -ance and
–
ence, some others forming adjectives and also adverbs. This
process is covered in morphology or the study of word formation (Gass &
Selinker, 2001: 9). In brief, identifying various affixes forming different parts of
speech may help learners remember the words.
Secondly, knowledge of word involves knowing its position. This category
comprises the understanding of grammatical patterns and collocations. Knowing
grammatical patterns of a word is related to the use of the word in a sentence.
Hence, it has close relationship with grammatical behavior of the word. For
instance, in what sentence patterns the word may occur and can be used whether
as subject, verb, object, adverb, complement, or other functions the word may
have. Thus, the knowledge of parts of speech of a word and its grammatical
patterns is needed. Grammatical learning burden of a word depends on the parallel
in grammatical behavior between words of related meaning (Nation, 2001: 56).
This implies that the grammatical similarity of the words having related meanings
will reduce the learning burden of the words. Therefore, knowing a word involves
knowing its grammatical behavior. Furthermore, knowing a word also implies
knowing the words which commonly collocates with. Knowing its collocations
means knowing what words it typically occurs with. This feature includes the
knowledge of the words or types of words most likely appear before or after the
word, and the words or types of words must be used with the word. Besides, the
the stored sequences of words which serve as the bases of learning, knowledge
and use (Nation, 2001: 321). This indicates the apparent position of collocation in
vocabulary knowledge.
Thirdly, knowing a word includes the knowledge of its functions. This
category comprises the knowledge of its frequency and appropriateness. Knowing
its frequency means recognizing whether the word frequently or rarely occurs. For
example, the word student is more frequently used than the word pupil or disciple.
And, knowing its appropriateness signifies the understanding whether the word is
suitable for the context or in which it occurs or not. For instance, the word reserve
or book is more appropriate than the word order when it is used in the context of
hotel room reservation. It is clear that this lexical knowledge category is strongly
related to the context in which a word is used. Constraints or limitations of word
use derive from the way of translating L2 into L1 or from the context in which the
word is used (Nation, 2001: 57). This comprises the usage labels shown in
dictionaries and the distinctive frequency of a word. Moreover, it is said to be
different across cultures. It is understandable, therefore, that it is most likely
influenced by the context in which the word is used. Undoubtedly, different
countries may provide different contexts of using the word because of their
different cultural settings. It can be said that certain words or terms commonly
used in a country, especially the terms referring to certain cultures, may not be
frequently used in different countries. The term bull-fighting, for example, will be
familiar and frequently used in Spain but it will not in other countries which do
cultural backgrounds in Spain. The use of the term is limited to particular cultural
settings. In brief, knowledge of word use entails the understanding of usage of the
[image:34.595.103.516.189.565.2]word.
Table 2.2 Knowing a word
Source: Nation (1990: 31)
Form Spoken form Written form Position Grammatical patterns Collocations Function Frequency Appropriateness Meaning Concept Associations
R What does the word sound like? P How is the word pronounced? R What does the word look like? P How is the word written and spelled?
R In what patterns does the word occur? P In what pattern must we use the word?
R What words or types of words can be expected before or after the word?
P What words or types of words must we use with this word?
R How common is the word?
P How often the word should be used? R Where would we expect to meet this word? P Where can this word be used?
R What does the word mean?
P What word should be used to express this meaning? R What other words does this word make us think of? P What other words could we use instead of this one?
The last, knowing a word involves knowing its meaning. Learners usually
think that knowing a word means knowing the spoken or written form of the word
and its meaning (Nation, 2001: 47). It sounds reasonable because learners
normally deal with the form and meaning when they learn new words. But there is
still one aspect that may help learners reduce the learning burden of words. They
need also to be able to connect the two aspects; knowing the form and meaning.
Since they establish
the learners‟ readiness in retrieving the meaning when seeing
the meaning (Nation, 2001: 48). It seems that knowing the meaning of the word
cannot be separated from the knowledge of its form. Therefore, the relationship
between meaning and form constitutes a significant concept of knowing a word.
Knowing a language means knowing how to relate sounds and meaning (Fromkin,
Blair & Collins, 2004: 4). It can be concluded, then, that form-meaning
connection finally may lead the learners to be able to understand and produce the
word.
As a matter of fact, many words which have a lot of different meanings
exist in a dictionary. Some of the meanings are related to each other, but some
others are not. In order to learn such words, there must be a clear guidance to
determine whether the word having different meanings must be considered as the
same or as distinct words. In this case, Nation‟s idea can be used to overcome the
problem. He states that the words having the same form, including identical
written forms and spoken forms, but carrying different meanings should be
regarded as different words (Nation, 2001: 49). Treating such words as different
words helps the learners differentiate their meanings particularly when they are in
use. The appropriate meaning of the word can be identified by looking at the
context in which it occurs. It is called contextual variation in meaning or
contextual variability (Nagy, 1997: 65). Hence, knowing a word also involves
knowing the different meanings carried by a word.
According to Nagy, there are two kinds of contextual variation in
meaning: (1) sense selection. It is a process in which a word is regarded as having
users hold a permanent internal representation of each related meaning, and when
the word form is found they have to choose the suitable sense from those stored in
their brain (Nation, 2001: 50), and (2) reference specification. In this variation the
interpretation of a word in particular context is more specific than the meaning
stored in human memory. In this case, language users have a fundamental concept
of a word which is suitable with a set of meanings of the word in use, and
language learners have to determine what real items the word refers to (Nation,
2001: 50). It is in line with what Carter (1998: 15) says that lexical words have a
referent and it is almost impossible to communicate in a language without
reference. Seeing the importance of reference in communication, it is necessary to
identify what is meant by referent. A referent is the object, entity, state of affairs,
etc. in the external world to which a lexical item refers (Carter, 1998: 15). For this
reason, it is acceptable that knowing the meaning of a word also entails the
knowledge of concept
–
what the word means, and referents
–
what the word
refers to. However, the researcher also has her own definition aimed in this
research. In this research, a word is defined as the smallest unit of language, it has
own meaning and it can stand by itself.
Dealing with students who learn vocabulary, Bogaards (2000) argues that
L2 learners may be assumed to learn not only word but also lexical units. In this
case, he identifies six aspects of lexical knowledge, namely; form, meaning,
morphology, syntax, collocation, and discourse. The first five elements are the
similar aspects mentioned by other experts. The sixth aspect
–
discourse, however,
and appropriateness of particular senses of a same word which is not easy for L2
learners to acquire (Bogaards, 2000: 493). In other words, the last aspect
–
discourse- is strongly related to the context of language use. It means that there is
certain role played by vocabulary in a discourse. In this case, Nation (2001: 205)
identifies two aspects related to vocabulary use in a text, namely: vocabulary use
signals and contributes to the uniqueness of the text. What makes the text different
from other texts, and vocabulary use carries general discourse messages shared
with other similar texts. This shows the importance of vocabulary use in carrying
the communicative purposes of a text.
Knowledge of vocabulary can be viewed from different perspectives.
Among the various views, the notion of „breadth and depth of knowledge‟ and
„receptive and productive knowledge‟ is a comprehensive discussion of
vocabulary knowledge. In order to get clearer description of vocabulary
knowledge, the following subsections present the discussion of various ideas
given by different experts.
d.
Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge
The term „breadth of vocabulary knowledge‟ usually refers to vocabulary
size of the learners. Vocabulary size refers to the number of words that a person
knows (Read, 2000: 31). Learners‟ vocabulary size is most likely related to their
ability in understanding both written and spoken texts. This implies that the
greater vocabulary size the learners have, the more easily they understand the
texts they read or listen. This also means that vocabulary knowledge mainly deals
Nonetheless, it should not be supposed that if a learner has adequate vocabulary
then all aspects in language learning become easy and it should not also be
thought that significant vocabulary knowledge is always a prerequisite to
language skill performance (Nation & Waring, 1997 in Schmitt & McCarthy,
1997: 6). To this extent, knowledge of words is operationalized as the ability to
translate L2 vocabulary into L1, to define the word correctly, or to say the word
differently and therefore, vocabulary knowledge is defined as precise
comprehension (Henriksen, 1999: 305). This stage of vocabulary knowledge falls
into the „partial
-
precise knowledge‟ of vocabulary.
Various studies on vocabulary size, lexical growth, and the number of
words gained overtime have been conducted by different researchers. The focus of
such studies is mainly on measuring the number of vocabulary, such as; counting
the number of words recognized by native speakers (D‟Anna, Zechmeister &
Hall, 1991; Goulden, Nation & Read, 1999), the amount of words required by
native speakers (Hazenberg & Hulsjin, 1996; Laufer, 1992), the number of words
gained from incidental exposure while reading (Huckin, Haynes & Coady, 1993;
Nagy, Herman & Anderson, 1985), and the amount of words learned by applying
different exercises, techniques and strategies (Avila & Sadoski, 1996; Cohen &
Aphek, 1980). Such research, however, does not lead to sufficient understanding
of vocabulary acquisition and does not explain how individual words are acquired
(Schmitt, 1998: 282). This condition underlies the emerge depth of knowledge
The result of a study conducted by Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990)
show that educated English native speakers know around 2,000 word families.
The native speakers add 1,000 word families to their vocabulary per year.
However, it is possible for learners of English as a second language (non-native
speakers). According to Schmitt (2000), the first 2,000 most frequent types of
English is referred as the level for the basic initial goal of second language
learners. However,
only the first 1,000 most frequent types needs to be recognized
by elementary level students and 2,000 most frequent types needs to be
recognized by intermediate level students (
Sánchez & Criado, 2009).
Depth of knowledge, on the other hand, emphasizes more on the quality of
the learners‟ vocabulary knowledge covering the full understanding or rich
meaning representation of a word (Henriksen, 1999: 305). The full understanding
or rich meaning of a word can be gained by looking at its relations or associations
with other words and its contexts. A depth knowledge continuum includes
knowledge of the word‟s syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations with other words
(Laufer & Paribakht, 1998: 367). The focus of studies on depth of knowledge is
different from that of breadth knowledge. It focuses on individual words rather
than on the overall growth of vocabulary (Schmitt, 1998: 282). It means that the
aspect of depth of knowledge stresses more on the learners‟ knowledge of
individual words including its referential meanings and its relations to other
words. In other words, it most likely deals with the range of meanings carried by
individual words. It also describes how well the learners understand the
Understanding the context in which a word occurs in particularly needed by
advanced learners. It is important for advance learners to acquire more senses of
polysemous words and learn more about possible collocates, special uses, and so
on (Bogaards, 2000: 495). This indicates that they most likely deal with depth of
knowledge vocabulary. By taking into account the context in which a word
occurs, the proper meaning can eventually be found and understood. For that
reason, context constitutes an aspect that is apparently inseparable from depth of
knowledge of vocabulary.
The proponents of depth of vocabulary knowledge (Paribakht & Wesche,
1993, 1997; Read, 1993; Schmitt, 1998; Viberg, 1993; Wesche & Paribakht,
1996) state that most of the existing vocabulary tests or the traditional vocabulary
tests only measure partial knowledge, particularly recognition. Therefore, they
develop tests to measure wider and deeper aspects of lexical knowledge. Using
such tests, they assess the aspects such as; basic understanding, full
understanding, correct use, sensitivity to collocation and word association.
Nevertheless, different test models should be accommodated in order to cover
various features of knowledge being tested. Henriksen (1999: 306) argues the
researchers must use the combination of tests formats tapping distinct aspects of
knowledge to describe the learner‟s lexical competence related to the aspects of
quality or depth of vocabulary knowledge. In their research, Laufer and Paribakht
(1998) classify word knowledge into three types, namely, passive, controlled
active and free active knowledge. Passive vocabulary knowledge is defined as
described as a cue recall of the word. And free active knowledge is referred to
spontaneous use of a word in context. The three aspects show that what they
investigate is fairly deeper than merely word recognition which is the concern of
breadth of vocabulary knowledge.
In his research which tracks the acquisition of 11 words over a year course
for three adult learners having advance English proficiency, Schmitt (1998)
measures four elements of lexical knowledge: spe
