i
VOCABULARY COVERAGE
OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the
Magister Humaniora
Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Leonie Irina Mutiara
Student Number: 126332033
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
GRADUATE PROGRAM
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ii
A Thesis on
VOCABULARY COVERAGE
OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
by
Leonie Irina Mutiara
Student Number: 126332033
Approved by,
F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
27
th
January 2014
iii
A Thesis on
VOCABULARY COVERAGE
OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
by
Leonie Irina Mutiara
Student Number: 126332033
Defended before the Board of Examiners
and Declared Acceptable
Board of Examiners
Chairperson : Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A.
__________________
Secretary
: F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
__________________
Member
: Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.
__________________
Member
: Dr. J. Bismoko
__________________
Yogyakarta, 7
th
February 2014
The Graduate Program Director
Sanata Dharma University
iv
For Everyone who asks and keeps on asking receives;
and he who seeks and keeps on seeking finds;
and to him who knocks and keeps on knocking,
the door shall be opened.
Luke 11: 10
v
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated,
are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands
the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else s
ideas, phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.
Yogyakarta, 27
th
January 2014
The Writer
vi
ABSTRACT
Mutiara, Leonie Irina.
2014.
Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School
Textbook.
Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta.
This research was aimed to investigate the vocabulary coverage and word
recycling in a Junior High School (JHS) textbook. With two research questions,
which are: (1) What is the vocabulary coverage of Junior High School textbooks?;
and (2) How are the words recycled?, this research tried to reach the subsequent
objectives: (1) to find out the number of types, tokens, and word families in JHS
textbook and its implication and (2) to explain how the words are recycled and in
what context they are recycled and its implication.
The research method was corpus-based research. The corpus were
obtained from a JHS textbook entitled When English Rings the Bell by
converting the pdf file of the textbook to txt file. The textbook was published by
the Ministry of Education and Culture in connection with Curriculum 2013.
Concordances were used as intruments for data analysis. They were RANGE and
FREQUENCY. Then, the data analysis results were interpreted to answer the
research questions.
The findings suggest that in total, there are 6,213 tokens, 1,049 types, and
637 word families in the textbook. They are divided into four categories: the first
and second 1,000 most English frequent words from A General Service List of
English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), the Academic Word List (AWL), and not in
the three lists (not in the list). Of the total number, 85.69% tokens, 61.20% types,
and 443 word families are listed in GSL_1; 6.52% tokens, 16.30% types, and 147
word families are listed in GSL_2; 1.79% tokens, 4.58% types, and 47 word
families are listed in AWL; 6.00% tokens, 17.92% types, and not available
number of word family are listed in not in the list. Then the word families are
counted with the number of occurence basis. Of the 637 word families, 36.89% is
recycled only once, 28.89% is recycled 2-4 times, 16.48% is recycled 5-9 times,
and 17.74% is recycled 10 times or more throughout the textbook.
The research concludes that the textbook is appropriate for students in the
beginning level of learning English as most of the types, tokens, and families are
listed in the first 2,000 frequent English words list. In addition, the number of
types are also appropriate with the ideal number for beginners. On average, the
word family is repeated ten times as tokens spreaded throughout the textbook. It
also contains 1,049 types, appropriate number of tokens for beginners. The
textbook also contains a lot of chunks, which provide opportunities to learn words
in contexts with their functional usage. On the other side, it does not provide
opportunities for incidental learning.
vii
ABSTRAK
Mutiara, Leonie Irina.
2014.
Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School
Textbook.
Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.
Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menginvestigasi cakupan kosakata dan
penggunaan ulang kata di buku pegangan Sekolah Menangah Pertama (SMP).
Ada dua pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana cakupan kosakata di
buku pegangan SMP? (2) Bagaimana kata digunakan ulang? Penelitian ini
mencakup tiga objektif: (1) untuk menemukan jumlah
token, type
, dan
word
family
di buku SMP dan implikasinya dan (2) untuk menjelaskan bagaimana kata
digunakan ulang dan di konteks apa dan implikasinya.
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian berbasis korpus. Korpus didapatkan
dari sebuah buku pegangan di SMP berjudul
When English Rings the Bell
dengan
cara mengubah bentuk arsip pdf menjadi arsip txt. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh
Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan sehubungan dengan Kurikulum 2013.
Dua buah program bernama RANGE dan FREQUENCY digunakan sebagai
instrumen analisis data. Kemudian hasil analisis data diinterpretasi untuk
menemukan jawaban atas pertanyaan penelitian ini.
Penemuan menunjukkan bahwa secara total ada 6.213
token,
1.049
type,
dan 637
word family
di buku tersebut. Dibagi menjadi empat kategori; 1.000 kata
bahasa Inggris pertama dan kedua yang sering dipakai dari
A General Service List
of English Words
(GSL_1 and GSL_2),
Academic Word List
(AWL), dan kata
yang tidak ditemukan di tiga kategori tersebut (
not in the list
). Dari jumlah
keseluruhan, 85,69%
token
, 61,20%
type
, dan 443
word family
terdaftar di
GSL_1; 6,52%
token
, 16,30%
type
, dan 147
word family
terdaftar di GSL_2;
1,79%
token
, 4,58%
type
, dan 47
word family
terdaftar di AWL; 6,00%
token
,
17,92%
type
, dan
word family
yang tidak terdeteksi terdaftar di
not in the list
.
Kemudian
word family
dihitung berdasarkan jumlah pengulangan. Dari 637
word
family,
36,89% hanya digunakan sekali, 28,89% digunakan 2-4 kali, 16,48%
digunakan 5-9 kali, dan 17,74% digunakan 10 kali atau lebih di seluruh bagian
buku.
Dari penelitian ini, disimpulkan bahwa buku
When English Rings the Bell
cocok digunakan untuk siswa di tingkat permulaan dalam belajar bahasa Inggris
karena sebagian besar
type, token,
dan
word family
nya terdaftar di daftar 2.000
kata bahasa Inggris pertama yang sering dipakai. Jumlah
type
nya pun juga sesuai
dengan angka ideal untuk pemula. Rata-rata,
word family
nya diulang sepuluh kali
sebagai
token
yang tersebar di seluruh bagian buku. Di buku tersebut juga terdapat
1.049
type,
angka yang sesuai untuk pemula.
Chunk
dalam jumlah banyak juga
terdapat di buku tersebut untuk membantu murid mempelajari kosakata dalam
konteks dengan penggunaan fungsionalnya. Namun di sisi lain, buku tersebut
tidak memberi kesempatan untuk pembelajaran insidental.
viii
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Leonie Irina Mutiara
Nomor Mahasiswa : 126332033
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
VOCABULARY COVERAGE
OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya
maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 27 Januari 2014
Yang menyatakan,
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the Almighty
God for always guiding and blessing me. He always gives everything I need. I
believe a bright future is prepared for me. Without Him, I will be nothing.
My sincere appreciation goes to my sponsor,
Bapak
F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D.,
for guiding, giving suggestions, and supporting me during my finishing this thesis.
I would like also to express my gratefulness to my lecturers in English Language
Studies for the inspiration they bring. I learn much from them.
Sincere love and gratitude is also expressed to my parents,
Bapak
Drs.
Wardani Sugiyanto, M.Pd. and
Ibu
Dra. Listyawati Sri Rahayuningsih, for their
love, pray, kindness, and support. I also thank my beloved sisters, Nada Dian
Sejati and Intan Ayu Nugraha, for making me laugh and always be cheerful. Not
to forget, my great thankfulness goes to my beloved fiance, Surya Adi Prasetya
Nugraha, for his love, time, and support. I also owe much to my friends, Maria
Asumpta Deny, Agatha Piscesia, Yustinus Calvin, and all KBI friends for their
willingness to share their knowledge and for happiness we share.
At last, my deepest appreciation also goes for
Ibu
Hardiati Agustine,
Bapak
Arief Rahman, and all friends and teachers in SMK-SMAK Bogor and for
many other names whose names cannot be mentioned one by one. I thank them
for helping and supporting me in finishing my thesis. May God bless us all.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE... i
APPROVAL PAGES.
... ii
DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGES
... iii
DEDICATION PAGE.
... iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
...
... v
ABSTRACT.
... vi
ABSTRAK.
... vii
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI.
. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
... x
LIST OF TABLES
... xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
... xiv
LIST OF PICTURE
.. .. ... xv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
...
.
.... 1
B. Problem Limitation
... . 6
C. Problem Formulation... 7
D. Research Objectives...
...
. .. 7
E. Research Benefit.
...
.. ... 7
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Theoretical Review
... 9
1. The Nature of Vocabulary
... .. ... 9
a. The Concept of Vocabulary... 9
b. Vocabulary Distribution... 11
1) Types and Tokens... 11
2) Word Family... 12
c. Word Recycling... 13
d. Word Form... 15
e. Word Meaning... 16
f. Word Use... 16
2. The Importance of Vocabulary
... .. .. . 17
a. Vocabulary as Input... 17
b. Input and Acquisition... 18
3. Vocabulary Teaching and Learning. ... ... 20
a. Goals of Vocabulary Learning... 20
b. Principles of Learning and Teaching Vocabulary... 21
c. Vocabulary Acquisition... 22
d. Learning Vocabulary... 23
1) Low Frequency Words... 24
a) Word Guessing from Context... 24
b) Deliberate Learning with Word Cards... 25
xi
d) Dictionary Use... 26
2) High Frequency Words... 26
a) Meaning-focused Input... 26
b) Meaning-focused Output... 27
c) Language-focused Learning... 28
d) Fluency Development... 29
e. Vocabulary to Learn... 30
4. Textbook
... ... 31
a. The Role of Textbook... 32
1) Textbooks as a Basis for Negotiation... 33
2) Textbooks as a Flexible Framework... 33
3) Textbooks and Teacher Development... 34
4) Textbooks as a Workable Compromise... 34
b. Characteristics of Materials in Use in South East Asia... 35
1) Imported Coursebook... 35
2) In-country Coursebook... 36
3) Regional Coursebook... 37
c. The Importance of Evaluating Textbooks... 37
d. Criteria for a Good Textbook... 38
5. Curriculum 2013... 40
B. Theoretical Framework
...
... 41
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
A. Nature of Data
...
... ... ... 44
B. Research Design
...
...
.. 46
C. Data Analysis
...
... .. 47
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A. Vocabulary Coverage of When English Rings the Bell ... 50
1. Vocabulary Coverage of the Textbook. .. ... 50
2. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I.
.. ... 54
3. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II. ...
.. .... 56
4. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III. ... ... ... 57
5. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV. ...
.. ... 58
6. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V.
... .... 59
7. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI.
.. ... 60
8. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII.
... .. 61
9. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII
... . 62
10. Vocabulary Coverage of Classroom Language for Students.
. .. 63
11. Vocabulary Coverage of Glosarium.
.. ... 64
B. Word Recycling in When English Rings the Bell ... 67
1. Word Recycling in the Textbook.
. ... 67
2. Word Recycling in Chapter I.
... ... 74
3. Word Recycling in Chapter II.
.. ... 75
4. Word Recycling in Chapter III.
... 76
xii
6. Word Recycling in Chapter V.
... ... 79
7. Word Recycling in Chapter VI.
... ... 80
8. Word Recycling in Chapter VII.
... ... 81
9. Word Recycling in Chapter VIII
.. ... 83
10. Word Recycling in Classroom Language for Students. ...
. ... 84
11. Word Recycling in Glosarium.
.. ... 85
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions
...
... .. 89
B. Recommendations ..
...
...
.. 91
REFERENCES
... 92
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A... 98
APPENDIX B... 124
APPENDIX C... 131
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1 English Language Teaching Textbook Checklist... 38
2.2 Curriculum Structure for JHS... 40
3.1 Data Analysis Process... 49
4.1 Vocabulary Coverage of When English Rings the Bell ... 51
4.2 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I... 54
4.3 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II... 56
4.4 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III... 57
4.5 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV... 58
4.6 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V... 59
4.7 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI... 60
4.8 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII... 61
4.9 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII... 62
4.10 Vocabulary Coverage of Classroom Language for Students... 63
4.11 Vocabulary Coverage of Glosarium... 64
4.12 The 20 Most Frequent Word Types
in When English Rings the Bell ... 67
4.13 Repetition of Word Families in When English Rings the Bell ... 73
4.14 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter I... 74
4.15 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter I ... 75
4.16 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter III... 76
4.17 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter IV... 77
4.18 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter V... 79
4.19 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VI... 80
4.20 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VII... 81
4.21 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VIII... 83
4.22 Repetition of Word Families in Classroom Language for Students... 84
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
xv
LIST OF PICTURES
Picture
Page
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the errors may interfere with communication.
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of only 1226 English words (referring to type), falling far short from the number
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reading of unsimplified texts. In terms of breadth (quantity) and depth (quality) of
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|
n this part
}the literature review of this research is explained to clarify
concepts
~main issues of this part are the nature of vocabulary
}the importance
of vocabulary
}teaching and learning vocabulary
}textbook
}and curriculum
~
ch part is then divided into several smaller parts
~
s part covers the discussion about the nature of vocabulary
}the
importance of vocabulary
}teaching and learning vocabulary
}textbook
}and
curriculum
~
ature of
ocabulary
|
n this part
}the concept of vocabulary
}vocabulary distribution
}word
recycling
}
ord form
}
ord meaning
}
nd word use are clarified
~a
~oncept of
ocabulary
ryone must know what a word is
~ owever
}many might confuse
what vocabulary is exactly and how word and vocabulary differ
~ ccording to
unan
ooo}vocabulary is target language words presented in a list
~ |t means
that vocabulary consists of a number of words
~
ow it is clear how word and
vocabulary differ
~ ne word can stand alone as a word
}but vocabulary should
nowing a word
according to
arter
is
·³¸¬ ¯¬°¹ º¸¶¶ ¯³´ »¼ ¸ ¹ ¯¬° ½³ µ¶·
. Thus, he clarifies that it is more accurate to
define a word as a minimum meaningful unit of language. Words can be in
different form, but it does not mean that they are counted as different words.
The concept of lexeme may help us in understanding the concept of word
more clearly. Carter defines lexeme as the abstract unit underlying variants (e.g.
¾¿ÀÁ ¾¿ÃÀ
,
¾¿Ä þÂÅÀÃÆ) related to word . Thus, GO is the lexeme of the
word-forms goes , gone , going , and went . Lexeme is the basic, contrasting units
of vocabulary in a language . If we search for a meaning in dictionary, we are
looking for lexeme rather than words. Then we would find the word-forms under
the lexeme. The terms lexeme and word-forms are important theoretical concepts
used when theoretical distinctions are needed. If not, we can just use the terms
lexical items, vocabulary items, or items to refer to words.
The discussion above then leads to a concept of lexical words. It can also
be called full words or content words . It includes nouns (
Æ ÇÈÉ À,
Ê ÇÃ),
adjectives (
Á Ë ÇÌ Æ,
ÍÄ ÉÄ ¾ÀÃÆ), verbs (
Å ÇÉÎ,
¾¿), and adverbs (
ÁÆÀÇÍÄÉÏ,
quickly
),
as a content word and
as a functional word. However, they are discussed
and treated as having a different category in the discussion part.
b. Vocabulary Distribution
This research is about vocabulary coverage and its recycling, which deals
with frequency. In the topic of coverage, types, tokens, and word families are the
important terms. Thus, it is important to define what they are.
1) Types and Tokens
If we intend to count how long a textbook is, we deal with token (Nation
and Meara, 2002), or can be called as running words (Nation 2001). Even
though the word, for example
ÒÓÔÕ ÑÔ Öhas occurred and been counted, it should
still be counted every time it occurs again. The same words are counted as a new
word each time it occurs. If we are counting types, the same words are only
counted once although it occurs more than once. Any occurrence of the same
word is not counted as a new word, but as another occurrence of the same type
(Nation, 1983: 10). The sentence
× ØÙ Ú ÙÐ Ø ÑÛÜÙ ÝÙ Ò ÑÞßÜ Õ ÑÕ ØÙ ßàÚ ÒáàÕ Ø ÚÙ Ð Ü ØàÚ Õcontains ten tokens and eight types. After the first occurrence, the words
ÕØÙand
Ú ÙÐ
are not counted again.
Based on the definition above, the same words with different meaning
are counted as one type. Due to the reason of counting, which is related to
vocabulary learning, words like
âll
,
I m,
and
let s
are counted as having two types
The analysis and interpretation is only limited to English words only in the
material presentation of the book.
2) Word Family
Based on the explanation by Bauer and Nation (1993), the concept of
word family is crucial for systematic approach in vocabulary teaching and
deciding the vocabulary load of texts which will be used. To know what is
included in a word family, one way is to count lemmas. A lemma is a set of
related words which have the stem form and inflected forms that come from the
same part of speech (Nation and Meara, 2002). Thus,
ãäå ãäæç å èæéê,
ãäëé ãare
under the same lemma because their stems are the same, and they are all verbs.
However, word family does not only consist of a lemma. Word family also
includes words with derivational affixes such as
é äé-
and suffixes such as
-ness
whose stem are the same. Words under the same word family do not have to be in
the same part of speech. Once the stem of words is known, learners will require
less effort to recognize other words under the same word family. As they are more
proficient, they tend to acquire more number of words in their word families
(Bauer and Nation, 1993).
400), a single meaning is given to an MWU, such as in phrasal verbs (
),
compounds (
òóïïze-dry
), and idioms (
burn the midnight oil
) . However, in this
research, MWU is counted as separate words.
On the other hand, Schmitt continues that the coverage of collocation
(words which tend to occur together) is far beyond the level of MWUs. In fact,
longer sequences of words to occur together are common and frequently found
and some of them are treated as units, like
have you ever heard the one about___?
The term which is commonly used to refer to this type of sequence is lexical
chunk or lexical phrases. Lexical chunk is very common for its relation to
functional language use. For example, the above lexical chunk is usually used to
introduce a joke. In this research, lexical chunk is regarded as words occuring
together which has functional language use. However, it is counted as separate
words.
c. Word Recycling
In this research, word recycling refers to how many times a word occurs
in a textbook and in what context it occurs. In another word, we can call it as
frequency. According to Nation (1983), most frequency count is based on a
sample of text with at least one million words.
Frequency itself has its own purpose. It provides a rational basis for
learners vocabulary learning, like what is stated by Nation and Waring (1997).
Thus, it is very important to know the frequent words in a textbook before
teachers use a certain textbook and ensure that the vocabulary learned is useful for
the learners.
Other experts also note the role of frequency in vocabulary learning.
According to Coady and Nation (1988), word frequency in a textbook has some
effects on some learners. Ten times in minimum is enough to have an effect on
them. There is no exact number of frequency which contributes to vocabulary
acquisition, but the more the better in subsequent level (Nation and Wang, 1999).
However, Pienemann and Johnston s model, as stated in Gass and Mackey (2002),
suggests that regardless the frequency of input one receives, the acquisition of
communicative value will hardly depend on particular developmental order.
Otherwise, it will be kept and made available when one is ready for processing
and use (Gass, 1997). It means that high frequency input does not necessarily
bring effects on one s acquisition of the input.
According to Thomas, Pfister, and Peterson (2004) words with high
frequency usually includes functional/structural words like
ôõ,
ö÷,
÷ø, and
ø ÷ù.
High-frequency words tend not to contain conceptual validity for an individual
word or for the text where the words occur. Words with medium frequency are
those with lesser generality but frequently repeated (Herdan 1964 as in Thomas
úöûü
2004). In this medium-frequency group, some commonly used content words
may be found. He also states that words with low frequency tend to contain higher
informational value than words with higher frequency. The size of group of word
types which occur only once is called hapax legomena . It indicates word
learning and vocabulary richness of a text (Holmes, 1994).
d. Word Form
According to Nation (2006c), words which are easy to pronounce tend to
be easier to be held in working memory and the chance of entering long-term
memory is bigger. That is why words introduced early in an English course needs
to be easily pronounced. Words with unfamiliar sounds can also be learned by
listening practice and guided pronunciation practice. English spelling is irregular,
but there are some patterns and rules which can help to learn it. It can be helped if
learners learn the most common affixes and their meanings and also simple
explanation of its etymology.
Ehri
úö ûü. (2001) states that awareness that words are composed by
attention to phonics (relationships between sound and spelling) (Stahl, Duffy, &
Stahl, 1998).
e. Word Meaning
Nation (2006c: 449) states that if an L2 word is a loan word or a cognate
in L1, it is then very easy to relate the form of the word to its meaning . For
example, over a half of English words was derived from French and Latin
(Roberts 1965, as in Nation 2006c). Thus, other languages derived from French or
Latin share a lot of vocabulary. This can help the learning process of the words by
analyzing them into parts and paying close attention to prefixes and suffixes.
Furthermore, Nation also argues that developing considerable concept is
required for understanding the meaning of some English words, especially for
learners with certain first languages. For example, Indonesian language does not
have different pronouns for people with different sex, while English has. English
differenciates words for siblings based on the sex (
ýþÿþand
þ), while
Indonesian differenciates them by age (
and
). However, developing L2
concept for words may be helped if the L1 equivalent is sufficient. If the range of
senses corresponds much to the L1, the learning burden will decrease.
f. Word Use
However, native speakers are able to use the language appropriately because they
have learned and stored units of language, such as
s all very well for you to
say,
which is larger than a word, and access and use them whenever they need
them. Thus, they just need quick time to produce language accurately (Nation
2006c). In addition, Nation also proposes his idea about restrictions in word use.
Some words such as faucet, kid, bugger, and explicate have
restrictions on their use. These restrictions include geographical
restrictions (Americans use faucet; British use tap), register
(expedite is very formal; speed up is more colloquial), currency
(some words such as forsooth and breeches are no longer in
use), age restrictions (potty and choo-choo are used by and with
children), gender restrictions (fabulous tends to be used by
women), and frequency (some words such as diligent and
capricious are not commonly used). (p. 449)
When learning a language, learning those restrictions is very necessary. It helps
learners to produce language naturally.
2. The Importance of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is important in language learning. It is clarified in this part,
including the discussion of vocabulary as input and input and acquisition.
a. Vocabulary as Input
example, if a learner in a very early stage writes the sentence
The grammar is totally wrong. The sentence should
be
,
Although, the sentence uses
wrong grammar, readers can still understand what it means. However, if the
learner wants to express his idea in the same target language, he cannot do it
without having enough vocabulary knowledge. Even a word cannot be spoken or
written and no information is delivered if he does not know any vocabulary in the
target language.
The idea that vocabulary is important is also supported by Sinclair at
IATEFL 1996, as in Lewis (2008: 16). He states that a lexical mistake often
causes misunderstanding, while a grammar mistake rarely . The sentence
! "
carries meaning that someone s book which he used to take note in
is not with him anymore. However, what he intends to say is
,
a smaller
version of laptop. Then, the lexical mistake causes misunderstanding to whom he
is talking to. Otherwise, the sentence
"will rarely causes
misunderstanding although the grammar is wrong. The researcher does not intend
to say that grammar is not important. Grammar is important, but not as important
as vocabulary because it is vocabulary which carries more meaning.
b. Input and Acquisition
Acquisition depends crucially on the input being
comprehensible. And comprehensibility is dependent directly on
the ability to recognize the meaning of key elements in the
utterance. Thus, acquisition will not take place without
comprehension of vocabulary. (p. 155)
Vocabulary is seen very crucial as language input. Without comprehending
vocabulary, learners will not acquire language. Learners recognition of the
meaning of vocabulary in certain utterance affects their comprehensibility because
vocabulary is the key element of language. That is why without having enough
input, language acquisition would be hard to occur.
3. Vocabulary Teaching and Learning
The concept of teaching and learning vocabulary is explained in this part.
It includes goals of vocabulary learning
,
principles of learning and teaching
vocabulary
,
vocabulary acquisition
,
vocabulary teaching and learning, and what
vocabulary should be learned.
a. Goals of Vocabulary Learning
When planning or designing a language course, it is important to define
its goals. Setting learning goals is very useful to determine the material, learning
activities, our teaching method, and so on. It becomes the guidance as well as the
end point of a course.
(2000b), the first 2,000 most frequent types of English is referred as the level for
the basic initial goal of second language learners. However,
only the first 1,000
most frequent types needs to be recognized by elementary level students (
Sánchez
& Criado, 2009).
Nation (2001: 9) proposes that studies in native speaker s vocabulary
suggest that second language learners need to know very large numbers of
words , which can be useful in a long term. It is because the studies consider that
all words are of equal value for learners. However, frequency based studies see
that some words are more useful than others.
b. Principles of Learning and Teaching Vocabulary
which encourage thoughtful processing of vocabulary through retrieval,
generative use, and the use of mnemonic devices where needed ; 5) Teachers
should help learners to take responsibility for their own vocabulary learning .
c. Vocabulary Acquisition
It is rather surprising that descriptive studies in vocabulary development
patterns are still limited. The possible reason is that what is meant by knowing a
word is not very clearly defined (Ellis, 2008). Another reason is the absence of
agreed terminal stage for word knowledge. Unlike grammar, vocabulary has an
open system and every native speaker has different, various vocabulary size and
depth of knowledge of words.
Ellis (1997) states learning vocabulary is not necessarily learning word
by word in phrases. If a learner says
#$%&' (), it does not mean that he knows the
words
#,
$%, and
&' (). Ellis notes that vocabulary or lexical acquisition occurs
through segmentation process when learners realize that formulaic sequences are
constructed by separate words so they need additional formulas, identify recurring
elements, and make open slots in them. In this case, the process of acquiring a
word may not be so different from the process of developing grammar.
Test by Nation and Beglar (2007). Over time, by being given more and more
input, learners will acquire larger number of words.
Studies in vocabulary qualitative changes require information about some
dimensions of word knowledge. The three dimensions by Haastrup and Henriksen
(1998) are: 1) partial-precise, referring to learners level of comprehension of the
same given word; 2) receptive-productive, referring to learners knowledge of a
given word, whether learners can use it receptively or productively; and 3) depth
of knowledge, referring to the extent to which learners have acquired properties if
a given word like word s paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.
Another way to measure learners vocabulary development is using
Paribakht and Wesche s (1993) Vocabulary Knowledge Scale. The scale includes
five levels which explain learner s level of knowledge of specific words. These
levels start from total unfamiliarity to ability to use the words in a sentence. The
stages are: 1. Learners have never seen the word before; 2. Learners have seen the
word, but they do not know what it means; 3. Learners have seen the word before,
and may know what it means (synonym or translation), 4. Learners know the
word and its meaning (synonym or translation), 5. Learners can use the word in a
sentence. This process of acquisition proceeds cumulatively, where learners
gradually obtain information related to word form and word meaning.
d. Learning Vocabulary
frequency words deserver more classroom time (Nation, 2006b). On the other
hand, because of its low occurrence, low frequency words do not deserve much
classroom time. After learners know the high frequency words, they can begin
learning the low frequency words. However, the focus is learning the strategy how
to deal with the words. Here are some approaches and strategies in dealing with
low and high frequency words.
1) Low Frequency Words
Nation proposes four strategies in dealing with low frequency words,
namely guessing words from context, deliberate learning using word cards, using
word part analysis to help memory, and dictionary use.
a) Word Guessing from Context
b) Deliberate Learning with Word Cards
Using word cards in vocabulary learning is included in deliberate one.
Deliberate vocabulary learning is more effective than incidental vocabulary
learning since it is more focused and goal oriented (Nation and Meara, 2002). In
order to be successful in this strategy, Nation (2001) suggests a set of learning
guidelines through the use of word cards, which are: i) retrieval rather than
recognition; ii) the use of appropriately sized groups of cards; iii) repetition
spacing; iv) word aloud repetition; v) word processing; vi) interference avoidance;
vii) serial learning effect avoidance; and viii) the use of context when needed.
c) Memorization with Word Parts
This strategy helps learners memorize unfamiliar words by analyzing its
parts. According to Coady and Nation (1988: 107), an unknown word can be
analyzed by checking its prefixes and stem, as a clue to its meaning , for
example, the word
*++,-. /. ,01which comes from the words
*+-
(a form of
ad-
),
d) Dictionary Use
Nation and Meara (2002) propose that there are some types of dictionary;
monolingual, bilingual, or bilingualized. They can be used receptively (to support
listening and reading) or productively (to support speaking and writing). There are
some subskills in using dictionaries, as suggested by Nation and Meara (2002)
Dictionary use involves numerous subskills such as reading a
phonemic transcription, interpreting grammatical information,
generalizing from example sentences and guessing from context
to help choose from alternative meanings. (p.46)
2) High Frequency Words
According to Nation (2006b), teaching and learning vocabulary with high
frequency can be divided into four strands, namely meaning focused input,
meaning focus output, language focused learning, and fluency development.
a) Meaning-focused Input
Nation and Meara (2002) suggest that meaning focused input is included
in incidental vocabulary learning through reading and listening. In order for this
strategy to occur, non-native speakers should meet three conditions. First, only a
small amount of unknown vocabulary is allowed in a text, around two per cent, or
one unknown word in 50 (Hu and Nation, 2000). Second, the non-native speakers
should receive large amount of input, at least one million tokens or more per year.
Third, there should be more deliberate attention to the unknown word to increase
the learning.
level, containing around 95% familiar words. Those texts can be used in reading
and listening activities. In class, teachers instruction and interaction with learners
are also a good source of listening input. If teachers use high vocabulary words,
then learners have enough opportunities for vocabulary learning.
If an extensive reading program is well-managed, well-designed, it can
also provide opportunities to learn and develop vocabulary knowledge. A good
extensive reading program, based on what Nation and Wang (1999) state, a)
provides interesting materials in which learners know 98% of the running words,
b) inspires learners to read at least one book every two weeks, c) encourages
learners to read at least three books at the same level before reading those at
higher level, d) encourages learners to learn the unknown words in the texts
deliberately, and e) facilitates learners to talk and write about what they read with
enough amount of time, not much.
b) Meaning-focused Output
Negotiation of meaning is a powerful aspect in learning vocabulary
through speaking (Nation, 2006b). However, the proportion of negotiation of
words learned through spoken communication activities is still small. Nation adds
that to design speaking tasks which facilitate vocabulary learning, some
considerations should be put into account. Those are: i) the target vocabulary
should be included in the written input, ii) the vocabulary should be used when
performing the tasks, iii) it is necessary to provide various opportunities in the
task for learners to use the vocabulary, iv) learners are required to use the
vocabulary in a different way from the one in the written input.
Learning from meaning-focused output can also occur in writing
activities. (Nation, 2006b) proposes that useful writing activities require written or
spoken output as a source of information to write about. For example, the Internet
is a good media for learning vocabulary since it provides learners opportunities to
communicate and discuss through writing which includes negotiation of
vocabulary. Besides, synthesizing information from some texts can also be a
useful written input as a source of vocabulary learning.
c) Language-focused Learning
teachers and learners to work together in a text, looking at the language features
and content.
From vocabulary perspective, teaching unknown words can be solved by
pre-teaching them, giving the meanings directly, giving training in using strategies
of guessing from context, analyzing word parts, and using dictionary. The
selection of which one to use depends on whether it is high frequency or low
frequency word, whether it is important in the text, the nature of the word, and the
context in the text.
d) Fluency Development
For sure, for fluency development, unknown words are not included.
Learners do not learn new vocabulary, but learn how to make the best use of
vocabulary that they already know or learn before. According to Nation and
Meara (2002), developing vocabulary fluency needs several conditions. It requires
familiar materials in a large number, focuses on the message, and enough pressure
to learn at higher level. Vocabulary fluency development does not focus
specifically on vocabulary or grammar anymore. Above that, it aims to develop
fluency in listening, speaking, reading, or writing
(learners make repeated attempts to record their best-spoken text), and rehearsed
talks. The second approach is making many connections and associations with a
known word. It involves using a known word in various contexts and situations.
The activities can be speed-reading practice, extensive reading, continuous
writing, and retelling activities. It aims at developing vocabulary system in a good
order. Fluency is gained by controlling the language system and using the known
word in various contexts and situations well and efficiently.
According to Nation (2006b), there are some characteristics of fluency
development. They are: i) involving no unknown vocabulary, grammatical
features, or discourse features; ii) existence of pressure or encouragement to
perform at faster speed; iii) message-focused aiming at message production or
comprehension; iv) involving language use in a large number. In the level of
words or phrases, like numbers, time sequences, greetings, etc, the activities can
be teacher saying words or phrases quickly while learners pointing to what is
being said, or done productively by doing vice versa.
e. Vocabulary to Learn
counting the frequency of vocabulary items in a relevant corpus, it enables
teachers to find a list of words which is useful for learners in early stages of
language learning. The high frequency words deserve more teaching time and
need to be the main learners vocabulary goal since they are frequent and
widespread. According to Read (2004) there are several things learners should be
able to do with high frequency words.
Learners need to have more than just a superficial understanding
of the meaning; they should develop a rich and specific meaning
representation as well as knowledge of the word s formal
features, syntactic functioning, collocational possibilities,
register characteristics, and so on. (p. 155)
On the other hand, Nation and Waring continues, the low frequency
words are not so frequent and thus do not deserve teaching time. However, these
words should still be learned independently by learners after they have learned the
high frequency words. Teachers should train them strategies how to learn those
words. Beside the frequency counts, the decision also depends on learners need.
It is necessary for teachers to look at learners need and make a special purposes
vocabulary list.
4. Textbook
In this research, the term coursebook and textbook have the same
definition. According to (Matsuoka & Hirsh, 2010: 57), a course book is defined
as follows.
environment with language teacher support including
pre-teaching of target vocabulary items.
Textbook then refers to any kind of book which is used by teachers to support
English language learning in a classroom.
a. The Role of Textbooks
Nowadays, the use of textbook is widespread throughout schools and
courses in the world. Language learning activities seem incomplete without the
use of textbook. According to Littlejohn (1998), although conferences, journals,
and workshops are able to be used to spread new ideas, textbook has been there to
be the most powerful device for spreading new ideas in language teaching. It is
indicated by the number of publishers in the world which increases year by year.
Often, learners have their own paradox about the existence of textbook in
language learning, as proposed by Sheldon (1988).
It is a cruel paradox that for students, teacher-generated material
(which potentially has a dynamic and maximal relevance to
local needs) often has less credibility than a published textbook,
no matter how inadequate that may be. (p. 238)
Hutchinson and Torres (1994: 324) propose a broad perspective on the
role of a textbook, which makes a textbook continues to be the mainstay of ELT
provision .
1) Textbooks as a Basis for Negotiation
The idea that a textbook only serves as a classroom material provider is
totally wrong. Classroom material provider is just one of the functions that a
textbook has. Instead, a textbook serves a lot of needs within classroom and
beyond it. It is not only a packaged material in a certain format. More than that, it
provides a structure for the management of the lesson as a social interaction and
a basis for negotiation between all the relevant parties (Hutchinson and Torres,
1994: 324).
2) Textbooks as a Flexible Framework
A textbook is not a dictatorial instructor. Instead, it provides learners
flexibility, responsibility, and freedom of choice within a structured learning
environment presented by teacher through the use of a textbook (Owen, Froman,
& Moscow, 1978). It enables learners to achieve their best development by
providing a secure framework. The argument is proposed by Allen (2008) who
argues that teachers have rights how and when to use textbooks. In other words,
teachers have control over the textbook in classroom and thus, it is not a
dictatorial instructor.
3) Textbooks and Teacher Development
Textbooks provide clear things to negotiate about, thus, teachers and
learners can negotiate them freely. The assumption that a highly structured
textbook causes the de-skilling of teachers is not true. Hutchinson and Torres
(1994) suggest that the more teachers feel comfortable with what they are doing,
the more inclined they make changes and variations from the textbook. Textbooks
enable variations to happen in classroom. Without structured guidance provided
by textbooks, teachers tend to do the same way in teaching. Hutchinson and
Torres argument is supported by a study by Stodolsky (1988) which reveals that
teachers are not constrained by textbooks. Instead, they make variations in their
teaching resulted from their convictions and preferences, the nature of materials
that they use, the school context, the learners, the subject matter, and the
classroom grade level.
4) Textbooks as a Workable Compromise
Due to the various needs of learners in a learning context, textbooks are
regarded as a workable compromise, as Hutchinson and Torres (1994: 325-326)
says that nothing that happens in education is anything more than a workable
compromise, and we cannot uniquely condemn textbooks because they are not a
perfect fit . It is teachers duty to decide their own way of using and adapting the
textbook based on learners needs, as Cunningsworth (1984) proposes.
for the best possible fit between what the coursebook offers and
what we as teachers and students need. (p. 89)
Cunningsworth s argument is supported by Allen s (2008) argument that the main
point of using a textbook is not on what is included or not included in a textbook,
but on how teachers use particular materials in their classrooms.
So the most pertinent question may not be what is included (or
not) in a particular textbook package but how instructors are
using it (or not) in their teaching practices and why. (p. 7)
b. Characteristics of Materials in Use in Southeast Asia
According to Bao (2008), based on his personal experience, English
materials used in the ASEAN member countries can be divided into three main
categories. They are imported coursebooks, in-country coursebooks, and regional
coursebooks.
1) Imported Coursebook
learners with various level to understand instructions, b) sometimes the
coursebook fails to present accurate cultural information and images, c) there is
little opportunity for learners to express their identity due to different country or
cultural background, d) imported coursebook, for some parents, are not
affordable, and e) it tends to be not in line with local examination system and
national education requirement.
2) In-country Coursebook
and e) sometimes it contains too much local-culture topic which can lower
learners curiosity.
3) Regional Coursebook
This kind of coursebook is unique. It is written by non-native speakers,
but exported to and accepted in some countries. This coursebook share the same
strengths with in-country coursebook and has two additional strengths: a) it has
efficient distribution network and b) it has good market sales with attractive
design. It also shares the same weaknesses with in-country coursebook with two
additional weaknesses, which are: a) the materials are not applicable in some
countries due to the difference in English proficiency levels.
c. The Importance of Evaluating Textbooks
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 96), evaluation is a matter
of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose . In this case, it judges
the fitness of a textbook for particular learners, with their learning purpose,
background knowledge, needs, and so on. It is not a matter of good or bad, but
how a textbook helps learners achieve the required purpose.
textbook has to match with teachers and learners needs. Thus, subjective factors
should not obscure objectivity.
d. Criteria for a Good Textbook
Selecting a good textbook might be challenging for teachers. There are so
many textbooks offered, but not all of them are suitable to students needs. In
selecting a good textbook, teachers need to consider some aspects. Mukundan and
Nimehchisalem (2012) develop a textbook evaluation checklist to help teachers
evaluate a textbook before using it, as presented in the table below.
Table 2.1 English Language Teaching Textbook Checklist by Mukundan and
Nimehchisalem (2012: 1132)
2valuative Criteria
I. General attributes
A. The book in relation to syllabus and curriculum
1. It matches to the specifications of the syllabus.
B. Methodology
2. The activities can be exploited fully and can embrace the various
methodologies in ELT.
3. Activities can work well with methodologies in ELT.
C. Suitability to learners
4. It is compatible to the age of the learners.
5. It is c
