ABSTRACT
Darpito, Albertus Joko. 2016. A Speech Act Analysis of the 2005 Stanford University Commencement Speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR Animation Studio. Yogyakarta: English Education Study Program, information, idea, or message to the audience. In the process of transmitting, there are many factors that influence the transmitted message. One of the factors is called speech acts. When a speaker produces some utterances, he or she doesn’t only produce grammatical structures and words, but also produces actions through those utterances (speech acts).There are some kinds of function in mind when a speaker forms an utterance, such as describing, requesting, claiming, etc. They are called illocutionary force.
In order to analyze the speech acts, the researcher formulated a question: What are the types of speech acts used by Steve Jobs in the 2005 Stanford University commencement speech? The analysis also includes what kind of illocutionary forces are performed in the utterances.
This study used qualitative research method specifically content and document analysis. There were three main steps done in this study: data gathering or collection, data organizing and data analysis. The data were collected by observing the speech and some related text books. After that the data were organized and analyzed.
In the speech, it was found that based on function performed by speech acts there were only four types of speech acts: representative, expressive, directive and commissive. In defining kind of speech acts used in the utterance, researcher needed to find the function or the illocutionary of the utterance.In finding the illocutionary force, there were some ways used such as using Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices (IFID) and felicity condition. After finding the illocutionary force, researcher could classify the utterances into some types of speech acts. Keywords: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking
ABSTRAK
Darpito, Albertus Joko. 2016. A Speech Act Analysis of the 2005 Stanford University Commencement Speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR Animation Studio. Yogyakarta: English Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
Bahasa adalah sebuah media yang bisa digunakan manusia sebagai mahluk sosial untuk berkomunikasi dan menjalin hubungan dengan manusia lainnya. Berbicara didepan umum atau yang biasa kita sebut berpidato adalah suatu bentuk komunikasi yang bisa kita temukan di masyarakat. Ketika seorang pembicara membawakan sebuah pidato, sebenarnya pembicara tersebut sedang berkomunikasi dengan orang lain karena adalah sebuah proses pengiriman informasi, ide dan pesan kepada orang lain. Di dalam proses pengiriman itu, ada banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi pesan yang dikirimkan. Salah satu faktornya disebut “speech acts” atau tindak tutur. Ketika seorang memproduksi sebuah ucapan dia tidak hanya memproduksi struktur grammar dan kata, tetapi juga memproduksi aksi-aksi dalam ucapannya. Ada beberapa jenis fungsi dalam pikiran seseorang ketika dia memproduksi sebuah ucapan, seperti mendeskripsikan, meminta,mengklaim dan yang lainnya. Fungsi-fungsi itu disebut “illocutionary force”.
Penelitian ini akan menganalisis tipe-tipe tindak tutur apa saja yang digunakan disebuah pidato yang disampaikan oleh Steve Jobs, CEO Apple Computer dan PIXAR Animation Studio, di sebuah sambutan upacara pemberian ijazah di Universitas Stanford pada tahun 2005. Penelitian ini juga membahas tentang bagaimana sebuah ucapan di dalam pidato diklasifiasikan ke dalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur.
Untuk melakukan analisis, penilitian mengunakan metode penelitian kulitatif, secara lebih spesifik analisis dokumen dan konten. Ada tiga langkah utama yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini: pengumpulan data, pengorganisasian data, dan analisis data. Data dikumpulan dengan mengamati pidato dan juga beberapa buku terkait. Setelah itu, data tersebut diatur dan dianalisis.
Di dalam pidato tersebut, menurut fungsi yang ditampilkan oleh tindak tutur, ditemukan ada empat tipe tindak tutur meliputi “representative”, “directive”, “expressive”, dan “commissive”. Ketika kita mau mencari tahu jenis tindak tutur apa yang terkandung dalam sebuah ucapan, kita harus mengetahui fungsi atau “illocutionary force” yang ada di dalam ucapan tersebut. Untuk mengetahui “illocutionary force”, Ada beberapa cara yang bisa digunakan seperti menggunakan “Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices” (IFID) dan “felicity condition”. Setelah mengetahui “illocutionary force” apa saya yang ada, kita dapat mengklasifikasikan ucapan tersebut kedalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur.
Kata kunci: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking.
A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005
STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH
BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER
AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO
A SARSANA PENDIDIJAN FINAL PAPER
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Albertus Joko Darpito Student Number: 111214064
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF THE 2005
STANFORD UNIVERSITY COMMENCEMENT SPEECH
BY STEVE JOBS, CEO OF APPLE COMPUTER
AND PIXAR ANIMATION STUDIO
A SARSANA PENDIDIJAN FINAL PAPER
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Albertus Joko Darpito Student Number: 111214064
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
2016
ABSTRACT
Darpito, Albertus Joko. 2016. A Speech Act Analysis of the 2005 Stanford University Commencement Speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR Animation Studio. Yogyakarta: English Education Study Program, information, idea, or message to the audience. In the process of transmitting, there are many factors that influence the transmitted message. One of the factors is called speech acts. When a speaker produces some utterances, he or she doesn’t only produce grammatical structures and words, but also produces actions through those utterances (speech acts).There are some kinds of function in mind when a speaker forms an utterance, such as describing, requesting, claiming, etc. They are called illocutionary force.
In order to analyze the speech acts, the researcher formulated a question: What are the types of speech acts used by Steve Jobs in the 2005 Stanford University commencement speech? The analysis also includes what kind of illocutionary forces are performed in the utterances.
This study used qualitative research method specifically content and document analysis. There were three main steps done in this study: data gathering or collection, data organizing and data analysis. The data were collected by observing the speech and some related text books. After that the data were organized and analyzed.
In the speech, it was found that based on function performed by speech acts there were only four types of speech acts: representative, expressive, directive and commissive. In defining kind of speech acts used in the utterance, researcher needed to find the function or the illocutionary of the utterance.In finding the illocutionary force, there were some ways used such as using Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices (IFID) and felicity condition. After finding the illocutionary force, researcher could classify the utterances into some types of speech acts. Keywords: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking
ABSTRAK
Darpito, Albertus Joko. 2016. A Speech Act Analysis of the 2005 Stanford University Commencement Speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and PIXAR Animation Studio. Yogyakarta: English Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
Bahasa adalah sebuah media yang bisa digunakan manusia sebagai mahluk sosial untuk berkomunikasi dan menjalin hubungan dengan manusia lainnya. Berbicara didepan umum atau yang biasa kita sebut berpidato adalah suatu bentuk komunikasi yang bisa kita temukan di masyarakat. Ketika seorang pembicara membawakan sebuah pidato, sebenarnya pembicara tersebut sedang berkomunikasi dengan orang lain karena adalah sebuah proses pengiriman informasi, ide dan pesan kepada orang lain. Di dalam proses pengiriman itu, ada banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi pesan yang dikirimkan. Salah satu faktornya disebut “speech acts” atau tindak tutur. Ketika seorang memproduksi sebuah ucapan dia tidak hanya memproduksi struktur grammar dan kata, tetapi juga memproduksi aksi-aksi dalam ucapannya. Ada beberapa jenis fungsi dalam pikiran seseorang ketika dia memproduksi sebuah ucapan, seperti mendeskripsikan, meminta,mengklaim dan yang lainnya. Fungsi-fungsi itu disebut “illocutionary force”.
Penelitian ini akan menganalisis tipe-tipe tindak tutur apa saja yang digunakan disebuah pidato yang disampaikan oleh Steve Jobs, CEO Apple Computer dan PIXAR Animation Studio, di sebuah sambutan upacara pemberian ijazah di Universitas Stanford pada tahun 2005. Penelitian ini juga membahas tentang bagaimana sebuah ucapan di dalam pidato diklasifiasikan ke dalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur.
Untuk melakukan analisis, penilitian mengunakan metode penelitian kulitatif, secara lebih spesifik analisis dokumen dan konten. Ada tiga langkah utama yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini: pengumpulan data, pengorganisasian data, dan analisis data. Data dikumpulan dengan mengamati pidato dan juga beberapa buku terkait. Setelah itu, data tersebut diatur dan dianalisis.
Di dalam pidato tersebut, menurut fungsi yang ditampilkan oleh tindak tutur, ditemukan ada empat tipe tindak tutur meliputi “representative”, “directive”, “expressive”, dan “commissive”. Ketika kita mau mencari tahu jenis tindak tutur apa yang terkandung dalam sebuah ucapan, kita harus mengetahui fungsi atau “illocutionary force” yang ada di dalam ucapan tersebut. Untuk mengetahui “illocutionary force”, Ada beberapa cara yang bisa digunakan seperti menggunakan “Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices” (IFID) dan “felicity condition”. Setelah mengetahui “illocutionary force” apa saya yang ada, kita dapat mengklasifikasikan ucapan tersebut kedalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur.
Kata kunci: speech acts, types of speech acts, illocutionary force, public speaking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude for those who helped and supported
me in process of writing this final paper. First of all, I would like to thank Jesus
Christ for blessing me and for accompanying me in the process of writing. It was
a long and winding road, but He was always there to lead the way.
Secondly, I would like to thank my final paper advisor, Concilianus Laos
Mbato, M.A., Ed.D. for his guidance and patience in the process of writing. It was
a long and complicated process, but I was grateful he was there patiently to guide
me. I would like also to thank all PBI lecturers and all staff members who helped
me in the process of writing this final paper.
Next, I would like to thank my beloved parents, Albertus Sumbogo and
Theresia Rini Purwarni for loving me so much and for becoming my strongest
motivations to finish my study. Without their supports and prays, I won’t be strong
enough to finish my study. I would like also to thank my brother and sister who
always there when I needed their helps.
Last but not least, I would like to thank all my friends in PBI 2011 for all
the supports they have given; JRS Indonesia staff members and volunteers for the
supports and the great opportunity they have given to me. I would like also to
thank those whom I cannot mention one by one that helped me in the process of
writing.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL PAGES ii
STATEMENT OF GORK’S ORIGINALITY iv PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI v ABSTRACT vi
ABSTRAK vii
ACKNOGLEDGEMENTS viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF APPENDICES xii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.2 Methodology 4
CHAPTER II. DISCUSSION 7
2.1 Review of Related Literature 7 2.1.1 Pragmatic 7
2.1.2 Speech Acts 9
2.1.2.1 Definition of Speech Acts 9
2.1.2.2 Locutionary, illocutionary and Prelocutionary Acts 10
2.1.2.3 Illocutionary Force Indicating Device and Felicity Condition 12 2.1.2.4 Types of Speech Acts 16
2.1.3 Public Speaking 21
2.2 Finding and Discussion 25 2.2.1 Representatives 26
2.2.2 Directives 32 2.2.3 Expressives 34
2.2.4 Commissives 35
CHAPTER III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 38 3.1 Conclusions 38
3.2 Recommendations 39 REFERENCES
41
APPENDICES 43
LIST OF TABLE
Page
Table 1. The five general functions of speech acts. 20
Table2. Table of analysis. 50
Table 3. Table of Frequency 57
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1. Transcript of the 2005 Stanford university commencement speech delivered by Steve Jobs. 43
APPENDIX 2. Table of analysis in utterance, type of speech acts, and illocutionary acts. 44
CHAPTER I
INTRODECTION
This chapter discusses the background of the study. It consists of three
sections, which are background of the study, problem formulation, and research
method.
1.1 Background of the Study
Human is a social being. It means that human cannot live without the
others. In living together, humans need to find a way to understand the others.
The way is called communication. Keyton (2011) describes communication as “…
a process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person
to another” (as cited in Lunenburg, 2010, p. 1). In the social life, communication
takes an important role in connecting people because people will be able to
understand the others.
In order to understand the others clearly, communication needs to be done
effectively. Lunenburg (2010) describes effective communication is “a two-ways
process that requires effort and skill by both sender and receiver” (p. 6). Through
effective communication, we can tell the others about many things such as ideas,
opinions, desires, what we want or what the others want so that we can understand
each other.
In order to communicate effectively, both a sender and a receiver need to
use an appropriate tool as a medium of communication. Grice and Skinner (1995)
states communication is “the sharing of meaning by sending and receiving
symbolic cues using language” (p. 5). So language is a medium for both sender
and receiver to communicate each other.
In using language, Yule (1996) states when we communicate with the
others, “we do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and
words, but we perform actions via those utterances” (p. 47). When a son utters “I
am so hungry” to his father, it means that he forms a statement that tells the father
that he is hungry. However, it also means that he requests his father to provide
some foods. Those kinds of acts are called speech acts. Yule (1996) defines speech
act as “Actions performed via utterances” (p. 47).
In using language as a medium of communication, the discussion of
speech acts becomes very important because it can help people to understand what
people intend to say through the utterances. Yule (1996) states that when we
produced a utterance, “we form a utterance with some kinds of function in mind”
(p. 48) such as apologizing, greeting, requesting, complaining, invitation,
refusing, etc. It is called illocutionary force of the utterance. However, in one
utterance that the speaker produces, it can potentially have some different
illocutionary forces. This condition raises a question of how the speaker can
assume that the intended illocutionary force will be recognized by the audience.
By understanding how speech acts work, hopefully we can raise our awareness
about the utterances and the following illocutionary forces that we produce when
we communicate with the others.
There are many forms of communication. One of them is called public
speaking or speech. Lucas (2009) says that public speaking is “a way of making
your ideas public – of sharing them with other people and of influencing other
communicating with the audience because there is a process of transmitting
information, idea, or message to the audience.
Creating and delivering a good speech is not easy. There are many factors
that should be considered. Lucas (2009) says that in creating and delivering, the
speaker needs to “plan, organize and deliver the speech skillfully” (p. 8). In
relation with speech acts study, a good speech should also consider the utterances
containing speech acts and illocutionary force that support the process of
transmitting information, idea, or message to the audience. By understanding the
process of how speech acts are used in each utterance of the speech and how the
illocutionary forces are formed, we can produce a good speech which maintains
its speech acts and illocutionary forces.
This study reports an analysis of the speech acts used in the 2005 Stanford
University commencement speech by Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and
PIXAR Animation Studio. Researcher chooses the speech because the speech is
very inspiring and related to researcher’s life, especially in the process of studying
in University and finishing the final paper. In his speech, Steve Jobs describes
how he overcame some problems and failures happened in his life. Researcher
also finds some problems and failures in the process of studying in university and
finishing this final paper. The speech motivates researcher to not give up in
overcoming problems and failures. Through the speech, researcher learns that God
speaks to us through many unexpected ways, or through “some dots”. All we need
impossible to connect the dots if we just stop in one dot. We need to keep move on
and find the other dots.
In order to analyze the speech acts, the researcher formulates a question:
what are the types of speech acts used by Steve Jobs in the 2005 Stanford
University commencement speech? The analysis also involves how the utterance
in the speech are classified into some the types of speech acts and how to
recognize the intended illocutionary forces in the utterances. Regarding to the type
of speech acts analyzed, Yule (1996) says that in classifying the speech, there are
two ways used: the first way is based on “general function performed by speech
acts” and the second one is based on “the relationship between the structural form
of utterance and the general communication function of utterance” (p. 53-54).
However, in this paper we are going to discuss only on the classification of speech
acts based on the general function performed by speech acts.
1.2 Methodology
This study was qualitative research and it used qualitative research method in
order to do the research successfully. Creswell (2009) explains qualitative
research as “means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or
group ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 4). Moreover, he mentioned the
process of qualitative research involved “emerging questions and procedures, data
typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building
from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretation of the
Qualitative research method was used because there were several reasons. The
first reason was because this study was conducted in a natural setting. Ary, Jacobs
and Sorensen (2010) state that qualitative research take place in “the natural
setting” (p. 424). Additionally, Creswell (1994) states that qualitative researcher
tends to collect data in “the field where participants’ experience the issue or
problem under the study” (p. 38). In relation with public speaking as an object of
this study, researcher collected the data by watching, listening and analyzing the
speech. It means the research was conducted in a natural setting.
The second reason was because this study put researcher as a key instrument.
According to Creswell (1994), in qualitative research the researcher is the one
who “gathers information and data through some instruments such as examining
documents, observing behavior, and interviewing participants” (p. 38). In this
study, researcher gathered information and data through examining the transcript
of the speech.
The third reason was because this study used interpretive inquire. According
to Creswell (1994), in qualitative research researcher makes interpretation of what
they see, hear, and understand (p. 39). In analyzing speech acts used in each
utterance of the speech researcher interpreted the speech through watching,
reading, listening and understanding the speech.
This study used content and document analysis. Ary at all (2010) says that
content and document analysis is a research method that “focuses on analyzing
Additionally, they mention that “the material analyzed can be public records,
textbooks, letters, films, tapes, diaries, themes, reports, or other documents” (p.
29). This study analyzed the video and the transcript of the speech.
In this study, the data is collected by observing and analyzing some document
related to the study. There two kinds of data collected in this study: primary and
secondary data. The primary data is the 2005 Stanford University commencement
speech by Steve Jobs. The primary data was taken from
http://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/. The secondary data were some
documents or books on linguistic such as pragmatics, speech acts and books on
public speaking.
In order to do the research, there were three main steps or procedures that
were used: data gathering/collecting, data organizing and data analysis. In data
gathering/collecting, the data was collected by observing the transcript of the
speech. Transcript was used in order to observe and analyze the data easily. After
that, the data was organized into a table. By using the table, the researcher
analyzed each utterance in the speech in order to find what kind of speech acts
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
This chapter consists of the review of related literature, the finding, and also the discussion or interpretation of the findings.
2.1 Review of Related Literature
This section aims to review other studies and theories related to the topic being studied. This section consists of three subsections: pragmatics, speech acts, and public speaking. There are some reasons why the discussion is focused on those three theories. The discussion is focused on speech act is because this study focuses on the analysis of speech acts in the speech by Steve Jobs. Moreover, speech act is one of the branches of pragmatics study. So it is important to discuss pragmatics briefly.
2.1.1 Pragmatics
Regarding the topic of this study which is speech acts as a branch of pragmatics study, in this section researcher discusses what pragmatics is. Researcher uses some definitions of pragmatics according to Yule (1996).
1. Definition of Pragmatics According to Yule (1996)
Yule (1996) defines pragmatics into four areas, which are “study of speaker meaning”, “study of contextual meaning”, “study of how more gets communicated then is said”, and “study of the expression of relative distance” (p. 3).
a. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning
(p. 3). It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people means by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.
b. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning
In this area, according to Yule (1996), pragmatics is an interpretation of what people intend to say in a particular context and how the context influences what is said (p. 3). Furthermore, he says that “it requires a consideration of how speakers organize what they want to say in accordance with who they are talking to, where, when, and under what circumstances” (p.3)
c. Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated then is said
In this area, Yule (1996) says pragmatics also necessarily explores “how listeners can make inferences about what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning” (p. 3). This type of study explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as a part of what is communicated. Furthermore, he says that we might say that it is “the investigation of invisible meaning” (p. 3).
d. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
After discussing some definition of pragmatics according to Yule (1996), in the next section we are going to discuss speech acts as a branches of pragmatic study (see Yule, 1996, pp. 9-83)
2.1.2 Speech Act
In this section, the researcher discusses what speech acts is. There will be a discussion of three related acts when the actions performed by producing an utterance: Locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. There will be also a discussion of how to indicate the illocutionary force of utterance. In the end of the discussion, the researcher will discuss about types of speech acts based on functions performed by speech acts: Declarative, representative, expressive, directives and commissives.
2.1.2.1 Definition of Speech Acts
When people communicate or use language to communicate, they will produce some utterances. The utterances actually don’t only contain grammatical structures and words. According to Yule (1996), the utterances also contain some actions (p. 47). That statement is also supported by John Searle that says “it is essential to any specimen of linguistic communication that it involves linguistic acts” (as cited in Hutchby, 2008, p. 1). It can be seen in the example 1 below:
Example 1:
I’ve just made some coffee.
you’ve just made some coffee, but it could be defined as an offer. Those kinds of acts are generally called speech act.
In defining what speech acts is there are some definitions taken from some linguists. Yule (1996) defines speech acts as “actions performed via utterances” (p. 47). Jerrold Sadock defines speech acts as “acts done in the process of speaking” (as cited in Horn and ward, 2006, p. 53). Speech acts is acts performed by using language (Department of Linguistic at The Ohio State University, 2011, p. 286).
2.1.2.2 Locutionary Acts, Illocutionary Acts, and Perlocutionary Acts
According to Yule (1996), on any occasion, the actions performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts: locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts (p. 48). That statement is also related with what J. L Austin says that “there are three-way contrast among the kinds of acts that are performed when language is put to use, namely the distinction between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts, all of which are characteristic of most utterances” (as cited in Horn and Ward, 2006, p. 54).
1. Locutionary Acts
Locutionary acts as Yule (1996) defines is “…the basic of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression” (p. 48). It is also known as the act of saying something. Furthermore, J. L Austin describes locutionary acts as,
2. Illocutionary Acts
According to Yule (1996), mostly we don’t just produce well-formed utterance with no purpose but we also form an utterance with some kinds of function in mind (p. 48). Those kinds of function in mind are called Illocutionary acts. Furthermore, he defines Illocutionary acts as “the acts that contain the specific purpose that the speakers have in mind” (p. 48). Moreover, he says that “Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance” (p. 48). It is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance. Inviting, advising, promising, ordering, excusing and apologizing are some examples of illocutionary force of the utterance.
3. Perlocutionary Acts.
According to Yule (1996), we do not, of course, simply create an utterance with a function without intending it to have an effect (p. 48). This is the third categorized of speech act, known as perlocutionary acts. J. L. Austin says that perlocutionary acts is “a consequence or by-product of speaking, whether intended or not” (as cited on Horn and Ward, 2004, p. 55).
In order to understand the application of locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary, let’s take a look to the example 2 below that is uttered by a bartender.
Example 2:
The bar will be closed in five minutes.
2.1.2.3 Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID) and Felicity Condition
In the discussion of illocutionary acts, Yule (1996) says that “in the same utterance can potentially have quite different illocutionary forces” (p. 49). It can be seen in the example 3 below.
Example 3:
a. I’ll see you later. ( = A) b. [I predict that] A. c. [I promise you that] A. d. [I warn you that] A.
In that utterance (a), there are three possible illocutionary forces which are prediction (b), promise (c) and warning (d). The problem is that it is quite difficult to assume that the intended illocutionary force can be recognized by the audience. Yule (1996) proposes two things that should be considered to solve that problem: Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID) and felicity condition (p. 49)
1. Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID)
Illocutionary Force Indicating Device is a device that can indicate the intended illocutionary force by finding performative verb (Vp). Yule (1996) defines performative verb as “a verb that performs the illocutionary force” (p. 49). The structure can be seen in the example 4 below.
Example 4:
“I (Vp) (you) that/to...”
If we try to apply that structure, the result can be seen in the example 5 below. Example 5:
a. I predict that I’ll see you later. b. I promise you that I’ll see you later. c. I warn you that I’ll see you later.
mentioned” (p. 52). Addressing that problem, he says that in identifying the intended illocutionary force, we can also indentify the word order, stress, and intonation (p. 52).
Example 6: a. You’re going! b. You’re going? c. Are you going?
In example 6a, the utterance doesn’t perform any performative verb, but we can indicate that the speaker tells or commands the audience to go by considering on other indicators such as the word order and the intonation when the speaker utters that utterance. In example 6 b and c, the utterances don’t perform any performative verb, but we can indicate that in b the speaker requests for a confirmation and in c the speaker delivers a question to the audience by considering on the word order. The stress and the intonation might be same in those two utterances (b and c). However, the difference in ordering the word indicates that those two utterances have difference illocutionary force.
2. Felicity Condition
The second thing that needs to be considered in indicating the intended illocutionary force is felicity condition. Yule (1996) defines felicity condition as “certain expected or appropriate circumstances, for the performance of a speech act to be recognized as intended (p. 50).
Example 7:
I sentence you to six months in prison.
Moreover, in everyday contexts among ordinary people, Yule (1996) says that there are also “preconditions on speech act” (p. 50). The first one is called general conditions on the participants. Yule (1996) defines general conditions as conditions “where people can understand the language being used and they are not playing acting or being nonsensical” (p. 50).
The second one is called content conditions. According to Yule (1996), content conditions are conditions where the content of the utterance must be in accordance with the intended illocutionary force (p. 50). For example, for both a promise and a warning, the content of the utterance must be about a future event.
The third one is called preparatory conditions. According to Yule (1996), preparatory conditions can be explained by observing the difference of preparatory conditions used in promise and warning (p. 51). In a promise, there are two preparatory conditions: first, the event will not happen by itself, and second, the event will have beneficial effect. In a warning, the preparatory conditions are the audience doesn’t know whether the event will occur or not, the speaker does think the event will occur, and the event will not have a beneficial effect.
Related to that condition, there is sincerity condition. According to Yule (1996), in sincerity condition, the speaker genuinely acts as in the condition of the intended illocutionary force (p.51). For example, in a promise, the speaker genuinely intents to carry out the future actions and in a warning, speaker genuinely believes that the future event will not have a beneficial effect.
the speaker’s state from non-obligation to obligation. Same way with warning, by uttering the warning, the speaker changes his/her state from non-informing a bad future event to informing.
2.1.2.4 Types of Speech Acts
Based on the functions performed by speech acts, Yule (1996) classifies five types of speech acts: declarative, representatives, expressive, directives, and commissives (p. 53). This classification is same with what Searle (1976) proposes in his work. However, Searle mentioned that it is a classification of illocutionary acts not speech acts. Searle (1976) classifies five categorizes of illocutionary acts that’s also related to the Austin’s work: declarative, representative, expressive, directives and commissives (p. 10-13). Regarding to this difference, Yule (1996) has mentioned that the term ‘speech acts’ is “generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance” (p. 49).
1. Declarative
The first type of speech acts is declarative. According to Yule (1996) Declarative is those kinds of speech acts that “change the world via their utterances” (p. 53), such as ‘I bet’, ‘I declare’, and ‘I resign.’ Others can be seen in example 8:
Example 8:
a. I baptize this boy John Smith.
b. I hereby pronounce you man and wife.
c. This court sentences you to ten years’ imprisonment.
In utterance (8a), the utterance changes nameless baby into one with a name. In utterance (8b), the utterance turns two singles into a married couple. In utterance (8c), the utterance puts the person into prison. In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.
The second type is representative. Yule (1996) describes representative as that kind of speech acts that “state what the speaker believes to be the case or not” (p. 53), such as describing, clamming, hypothesizing, insisting and predicting. That definition is also same with what Searle (1976) proposes that “the purpose of the member of representative class is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case” (p. 10). Additionally, he says that we have to emphasize the term ‘believe’ and ‘commit’ in representative because they are there intended to mark dimension (p. 10).
Example 9:
a. The earth is flat.
b. Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. c. It was a warm sunny day.
Those examples show us how the speaker represents the world as he or she believes it is. In using representative, the speaker makes the words fit the world (of belief). In utterance (9a), the speaker makes a hypothesis that the earth is flat. Without considering the fact that his statement scientifically proved or not, the speaker expresses what he believes. In utterance (9b), the speaker claims that Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. In his/her claim, the speaker believes that Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. In utterance (9c), the speaker describes that it was a warm sunny day. In his/her description, the speaker believes that it was a warm sunny day because he can see and feel it.
3. Expressive
Searle (1976) says that expressive is used “… to express the psychological state” (p. 12). Additionally, Yule (1996) says that the psychological state can be “statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow” (p. 53). According to Yule (1996), it can be caused by something the speaker does or the audience does, but it is about the speaker’s experience (p. 53). In using an expressive, the speaker makes the word fit the world (of feeling).
Example 10:
a. I’m really sorry! b. Congratulations! c. Oh, yes, great!
Other examples of expressive: I apologize for…, I appreciate that…, I congratulate you on…, I deplore that…, I detest that…, I regret that…, I thank
you for…, I welcome…, I’m glad that…
4. Directive
The next type of speech acts is Directive. Yule (1996) defines directive as “that kind of speech acts that the speakers use to get someone else to do something” (p. 54). That statement is also same with what Searle (1976) says that directive is used to “get the hearer to do something” (p. 11). In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the audience). There are commands, orders, requests, suggestions, and, prohibitions as illustrated in the examples 11.
a. Give me a cup of coffee. Make it black. b. Could you lend me a pen, please? c. Don’t touch that.
Other examples of directive: I ask you to…, I beg you to…, I challenge you to…, I command you to…, I dare you to…, I invite you to…, I request you to…
5. Commissive
The last type of speech acts is Commissive. Yule (1996) describes Commissive as “that kind of speech acts that speaker uses to “commit themselves to some future actions” (p. 54). Searle (1976) defines commissive as type of speech acts that aims “…to commit the speaker to some future course of action” (p. 11). Commissive can be performed by the speaker alone, or by a speaker as a member of a group. In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speakers). There are promises, threats, refusals, pledges, and as illustrated in the examples 12 below.
Example 12: a. I’ll be back.
b. I’m going to get it right next time. c. We will not do that.
Other examples of commissives: I guarantee that…, I pledge that…, I promise that…, I swear that…, I vow that…, I undertake to…, I warrant that…, I want
to…
Table 1. The five general functions of speech acts
Speech act type Direction of fit
S = speaker;
X = situation
Declarations Words change the world S causes X Representatives Make words fit the world S believes X
2.1.3 Public Speaking
Nowadays, public speaking whether we realize it or not becomes a skill that is commonly used in doing communication with other people. According to Coopman and Lull (2009), “We use public speaking skill every day, although not usually in the formal way most people associate with speaking in public” (p. 3). You answer question in class, participate in meetings at work, presentations that you present during your study, tell classmates about some experience are some examples of how public speaking is applied in our daily life. When we speak in front of public, we try to transfer or share our ideas to people. Lucas (2009) defines public speaking in three ways, “a way of making your ideas public, a way of sharing them with other people, and a way of influencing other people” (p. 4). Influencing other people becomes a goal in public speaking because the speaker will expect the audience to believe on his or her ideas and do something about it.
In a formal way, public speaking is done in front of public. It means that there are numbers of people that listen to the speech. It has also limited time to do the speech. Coopman and Lull (2009) define public speaking as “a situation in which an individual speaks to a group of people, assuming responsibility for speaking for a defined length of time” (p. 4).
know about the information” (p. 30). Speech to entertain aims to “entertain the audience or the listeners” (p. 30). Speech to persuade aims to “persuade or influence the audience to do something or believe in something” (p. 30).
In designing and delivering effective public speaking, the speaker needs to consider many things. In 2012, Wrench, Goding, Johnson, and Attias, define what public speaking is and what need to be involved to create effective public speaking:
Public speaking is the process of designing and delivering a message to an audience. Effective public speaking involves understanding your audience and speaking goals, choosing elements for the speech that will engage your audience with your topic, and delivering your message skillfully. Good public speakers understand that they must plan, organize, and revise their material in order to develop an effective speech (p. 8)
Coopman and Lull (2009) conclude that there are 8 elements interact in public speaking that should be considered in designing and delivering public speaking: sender (speaker), message, channel, receiver (audience), noise, feedback, context, and environment (p. 16)
1. Speaker
2. Message
In public speaking, the speaker delivers a message. Coopman and Lull (2009) describe message as “The words and nonverbal cues a speaker uses to convey ideas, feelings and thoughts” (p. 16). The message can be a form of words (verbal communication) and also how the speaker presents those words in his or her speech (nonverbal communication).
3. Channel
In delivering the speech, sometime the speaker does not only deliver the speech in person but also using some media such as print and electronic. It is called channel. Coopman and Lull (2009) define channel as “a mode or medium of communication” (p. 17). When the speaker delivers the speech, he or she involves multiple channels such as using presentation media, playing a clip or video that relevant to the topic, or providing some handout to the audiences.
4. Audience
5. Interference
When the speaker delivers a message using speech, sometime there is some interference. It is called noise. Coopman and Lull (2009) describe noise as “Anything that interferes with the understanding of a message” (p. 17). It may be internal noise or external noise. Internal noise may be caused by the audience such as daydreaming or thinking about something else that causes the audience doesn’t pay attention to the speech. External noise may be caused by external factor around such as other people talking or from the cell phone.
6. Feedback
In public speaking, it is also possible that the audience gives feedback to the speaker. Coopman and Lull (2009), feedback is “A response from the audience to a speech” (p. 17). In public speaking Nods, smiles, shaking head, frown, applause is the way the audience responds the speech.
7. Context
8. Environment
Coopmand and Lull (2009) says that environment refers to “all external that influence a public speaking event” (p. 18). For example, events occurring at or near the time when the speech is delivered may be influence the audience’s react
2.2 The Finding and Discussion
This section is to show what the researcher finds in the analysis of a speech delivered by Steve Jobs. In the analysis, researcher analyzes what types of speech acts used in the utterances. The analysis also involves what kind of illocutionary forces performed in the utterances. In the analysis, researcher used the classification of speech acts proposed by Yule (1996).
Yule (1996) classifies 5 types of speech acts based on the function performed by speech acts: declarative, representative, directive, expressive, and commissive (p. 53). However, in the speech analyzed there are only four types of speech acts found: Representative, Directive, Expressive, and Commissive. There is no declarative speech acts found in the speech.
The speaker did not use any declarative speech acts because as Yule (1996) said that in using declarative speech acts, the speaker has to have a special institution role, in a specific context. In the speech, Steve Jobs don’t have any special institution role to perform declarative speech acts. Actually, the speech is an opening speech, so that there are no utterances that change the world via his utterances such as status.
The first type of speech acts is representatives. Yule (1996) describes representatives as those kinds of speech acts that “state what the speaker believes to be the case or not” (p. 53). In the speech being analyzed, representative is the most frequent type of speech acts compared with the other types. This fact is affected by the structural form of the speech delivered by Steve Jobs. Generally, the speech delivered by Steve Jobs consists of three stories of his life. In those three stories, he talked a lot about his experiences when he studied in university, when he decided to drop off, when he started his company, etc. When the speaker tells some stories or shares his experience, it means that normally he believes in what he has said.
When the speaker forms an utterance, Yule (1996) says that the speaker forms an utterance with “some kind of function in mind” that we called Illocutionary force of utterances (p. 48). In representatives, there are some functions or illocutionary force performed such as describing, stating, clamming/asserting, hypothesizing, insisting and predicting. In the speech being analyzed, there are two illocutionary forces that are performed by the representative speech acts: description and claim.
1. Description
Description is frequently used by the speaker because it is also related to the three stories that he tells. By describing his three stories it means that he believes in those three stories.
a. The first story is about connecting the dot.
b. I dropped out of Reed College after the first six months, but then stayed around as a drop in for another 18 months or so before I really quit.
c. So why did I drop out?
d. My biological mother was a young, unwed graduate student, and she decided to put me up for adoption.
e. She felt very strongly that I should be adopted by college graduates, so everything was all set for me to be adopted at birth by a lawyer and his wife.
In the example 13 above, there is a piece of the first story. In the beginning the speaker describes what the first story is about. Then, in the following utterance, the speaker gives further description about his decision to drop out of the college. He also describes why he dropped out by describing his mother.
In finding function ‘description’ in the speech, Yule (1996) proposes a way by finding the performative verb (p. 49). However, in the example 13, there is no performative verb ‘describing’ used to indicate that the speaker is describing something. In order to solve that problem, Yule (1996) proposes another ways to indicate the function by looking for another indicator such as word order and question mark and looking for the felicity condition (p. 50).
means the content of the utterance must be in accordance with the intended illocutionary forces. The content of the utterance (13a) is about describing what the first story is about.
In example 13b, researcher considers that utterance as a description and a representative speech acts because of some reasons. In the utterance, the speaker describes his past experience when he dropped out of the college. The content of the utterance is about description. Through the description, the speaker let the audiences know what happened to him in the past.
In example 13c, the word order and question mark indicate that the speaker asks a question. However, it is a rhetorical question. So the speaker doesn’t expect any answers from the audiences. He is the one that will answer the question. Through the question, the speaker actually wants to describe why he dropped out.
In example 13d, the speaker describes his biological mother. Before he describes about it, the audiences might not know about his biological mother. So when he describes his biological mother, the speaker let the audience know his mother. When the speaker describes his mother, he believes in his own understanding and observation of his mother.
his mother’s feeling. He believes about his mother’s feeling because he relates it with what his mother has done.
In order to prove that those utterances are representatives and more specifically description, we can assess the utterances using an instrument proposed by Searle (1976). He says that “all the members of the representative class are assessable on the dimension of assessment which includes true and false” (p. 10). In the example 13, we can assess the utterances using the question “is it true that ………?” and we might answer that question using “it is true or false that…..” In the example 13a,b, d, and e, it is possible that we assess the utterance using true and false: “is it true that the first story is about connecting the dot?” However, for the example 13c, we cannot use the assessment to prove that the utterance belongs to representative. We can use other indicator, such as considering the question as a rhetorical question as researcher has elaborated above.
2. Claim
The second function found in representative is claim or assertion. Claim is also considered as representative because it involves also sense of believing. Claim is statement that something is true or is a fact, although other people might not believe it, as illustrated in example 14.
Example 14:
b. Reed College at that time offered perhaps the best calligraphy instruction in the country.
c. If I never dropped in on that single course in college, the Mac would have never had multiple typefaces or proportionally spaced fonts.
d. But it turned out that getting fired from Apple was the best thing that I could have ever happened to me.
e. Pixar went out to create the worlds first computer animated feature film, Toy Story, and is now the most successful animation studio in the world f. Remembering that I’ll be dead soon is the most important tool I’ve ever
encountered to help me make the big choices in life.
It is same with the description that in classifying those utterances we could use some ways. By looking at the felicity condition, specifically in content condition, we can see that the content of all utterances is about claiming something that the speaker believes to be true or not. In utterance 14a, 14b, 14d, 14e, 14f the speaker claims something related to the best decision, best calligraphy, best thing that I could have ever happened, the most successful and the most important. By using some words such as “the best…” and “the most….” the speaker believes in what he claims. By looking at those words, researcher can differentiate the utterances which indicate claim and description.
“the most”. Researcher also can consider the utterances as claim because the speaker also uses a grammatical structure, such as “if condition”. In the utterance (14c), the speaker claims that if he doesn’t do something, then the following condition will not be fulfilled. By using conditional sentence, the speaker believes that something happens because there is causality. Moreover, looking for the felicity condition, researcher finds that the content of the utterances is about claim.
In order to prove that those utterances are representative and more specifically claim, we can also asses the utterances using “true-false” assessment. For example: Is it true that it is the best decision he has ever made? ; Is it true that Reed College at that time offered perhaps the best calligraphy instruction in the country? Etc.
After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs representative speech acts. Representative can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate what the speaker believes, such as description and claim. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.
2.2.2 Directives
speaker uses to get someone else to do something” (p. 54). In directive, there are some illocutionary forces performed, such as request, order, command, suggestion, and advice. In the speech being analyzed, generally the speaker suggests the audience based on his life experiences. It is related to one of the three types of speech proposed by Wilson, Arnold, Wertheimer (1990). They mention that one of the types is “speech to persuade” (p. 30). Moreover, he explains that speech to persuade aims to “persuade or influence the audience to do something or believe in something” (p. 30).
Example 15:
a. So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your future. b. You have to trust in something, your God, destiny, life, karma,
whatever.
c. If you haven’t found it yet, keep looking and don’t settle. d. Don’t lose faith.
e. don’t waste it living someone else’s life.
f. Don’t be trapped by dogma, which is living with the results of other people’s thinking
g. Don’t let the noise of others’ opinions drown out your own inner voice. h. And most important, have the courage to follow your heart and
intuition.
i. Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish.
using “have to”, the speaker also suggests the audiences to trust because he thinks that those are necessary.
According to Yule (1996), the directive speech acts can be positive or negative (p. 54). In the utterances 15c, 15d, 15e, 15f, and 15g, the speaker uses auxiliary ‘don’t’ in the beginning in order to suggest the audiences not to do something. In the utterances h and I, the speaker puts the verbs in the beginning of each utterance to indicate that they are imperative.
Using felicity condition, specifically in content condition, researcher can also explain why the utterances are considered as suggestion. According to Yule (1996), the content of utterance should be in accordance with the intended illocutionary force. In the example 15, the contents of the utterances are about suggesting the audience to do, to trust, and to not doing something.
After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs directive speech acts. Directive can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate the speaker uses to get someone else to do something, such as suggestion. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.
2.2.3 Expressives
expressive, the speaker expresses psychological states and can be statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow (p. 53). In the speech delivered by Steve Jobs, there are two illocutionary forces that indicate what the speaker fells: gratitude and honor.
Example 16:
a. Thank you.
b. I am honored to be with you today at your commencement from the one of finest universities in the world.
c. Thank you all very much
In utterances 16a and 16c, the speaker express what he fells by expressing gratitude. He uses the verb “thank” to express his gratitude. In the utterance 16b, the speaker expresses what he fells by expressing his honor. In indicating that those utterances are expressive, as Yule (1996) mentions that we can find performative verb ‘honored’ such as in utterance b and performative verb ‘thank’ such as in utterance 16a and 16c (p. 53).
After analyzing the data, researcher concludes that in the speech being analyzed, it is found that the speaker performs expressive speech acts. Expressive can be found in some illocutionary forces of the utterances that indicate what the speaker feels, such as gratitude and honor. The illocutionary forces can be found using some ways, such as finding the performative verbs, analyzing word order, stress, and intonation, and analyzing the felicity condition.
The fourth type of speech acts found in the speech being analyzed is commissives. Yule (1996) says that commissives are kinds of speech acts that speakers use to “commit themselves to some future actions” (p. 54). Additionally, he also mentions that commissive expresses “what the speaker intends” (p. 54). In the speech being analyzed there are some illocutionary forces that indicate the speaker commits himself to some future actions such as intention, hope/wish, and guarantee as illustrated in example 17.
Example 17:
a. Today I want to tell you three stories from my life. b. Let me give you one example.
c. As with all matters of the heart, you’ll know when you find it. d. And I hope it’s the closest I get for a few more decades.
e. Right now the new is you, but someday not too long from now, you will gradually become the old and be cleared away.
f. And now, as you graduate to begin a new, I wish that for you. 1. Intention
In utterances 17a and 17b, the speaker expresses what he intends to do by using the verb “want” and “let”. When the speaker says, “I want to tell you…” it means that the speaker is going to tell the audiences or in another word, “commit himself to some future actions. When the speaker says, “let me give you one example” it means that the speaker is going to give the audiences one example or in another word also: commit himself to some future action.
2. Guarantee
guarantees something to the audiences, he is sure that something is going to be happened in the future. That sense of certainty is the reason why researcher considers the utterances a guarantee. In guarantee, there should be something that to be guaranteed. In utterance 17c, the speaker guarantees that they will know when they find it. It means that the speaker is sure that in the future the audiences will find it. In utterance 17e, the speaker guarantees that they will gradually become the old and be cleared away. It means the speaker is sure that in the future they will be like that.
3. Hope/Wish
In the utterances 17d and 17f, the speaker expresses his commitment to the future action by hoping or wishing something. When the speaker hopes something, he wants something happens in the future. In the utterance d, the speaker hopes that it will be the closest he gets for a few more decades. In the utterance 17f, the speaker wishes something to the audiences related to their graduation.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter discusses some conclusions of the finding and the analysis. It
also provides some recommendations to the readers of this study.
3.1 Conclusion
Based on the general functions performed by speech acts, in the speech
delivered by Steve Jobs, there are four types of speech acts performed through the
utterances. There are representative, directive, expressive, and commissive.
Generally, representative is used to express what the speaker believes to be or not
to be a case. The illocutionary forces performed in representatives are description
and claim. Generally, directive is used when the speaker uses to get someone else
to do something. The illocutionary force performed in directives is suggestion.
Generally, expressive is used to express what the speaker feels. The illocutionary
forces performed in expressive are gratitude and honor. Generally, commissive is
used when the speakers wants to commit himself to some future actions. In other
words is to express what the speaker intends. The illocutionary forces performed
in commissives are intention, guarantee, and hope/wish.
In determining the type of the speech, we should know the communicative
purpose or the function of the utterance by looking for the illocutionary force of
each utterance. By knowing the illocutionary force, we can classify the speech
acts into some groups of the same communicative purpose or function. In
first technique is by finding the performative verb. However, not all utterances
have performative verb. If there is no performative verb found, we can use other
indicator such as word order, question mark, intonation and stress. We can also
analyze felicity condition of each utterance to support the other indicators.
3.2 Recommendation
Based on the conclusion presented above, there are some recommendations to
the readers of this study, especially who are interested in speech acts study.
1. This study contains much information about speech acts study. Students or
maybe people who are interested in speech acts study can use the information
as one of the references.
2. This study uses public speaking as a medium of understanding the speech
acts. Public speaker or people who learned communication can use this study
to understand how speech acts works in each utterance and how to produce a
good speech which maintains its speech acts and the messages that want to be
conveyed can be delivered properly.
3. For the future researcher, this study can be a beneficial input to do a similar
research on speech acts. However, since this study only uses one speech to
discuss about the speech acts, it’s recommended to use more speeches in
order to get better point of view of how speech acts works.
4. For the further research on speech acts, it is recommended that the researcher
can use other various forms of communication such as dialogue, storytelling,
letters, podcast, and other forms of communication. It is because when we use
other various forms of communication, hopefully we can find other features
5. In relation to teaching field, teachers can use this study for the reference when
they teach about public speaking, especially when the discussion is about the
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