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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
of parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 21 June 2012
The writer,
Yunita Sulistyaningtyas
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Yunita Sulistyaningtyas Nomor Mahasiswa : 071214032
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Pepustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
The Exercise Types in Basic Reading I of academic year 2011/2012 in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 21 Juni 2012
Yang menyatakan
ABSTRACT
Sulistyaningtyas, Yunita. (2012). The Exercise Types in Basic Reading I of academic year 2011/2012 in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Reading is a dynamic and interactive process, during which learners make use of a variety of skills and strategies, combined with background knowledge. Therefore, one of the teaching reading goals is to give students opportunity to develop their skills. Then, to accomplish it, teachers used various exercise types.
There are two problems in this study: (1) what are the types of exercises used in Basic Reading I? (2)What are the students’ problems in reading? Thus, the study has two objectives. The first is to find out the types of exercise used in Basic Reading I. The second is to find out the students’ problems in reading.
The researcher observed the exercise types in D class of Basic Reading I, collected the documents of Basic Reading I such as weekly handouts, course outline, and syllabus. The researcher, then, distributed the student questionnaire to the students who took Basic Reading I and lecturer questionnaire, and interviewed four students who were randomly selected to gain deeper information. The participants of this study were the students and the lecturer of D class of Basic Reading I academic year 2011/2012. The data were collected from the observation notes, documents, questionnaire sheets, and interview transcripts. The researcher employed qualitative research particularly in survey and document analysis. It means that the purpose of this study is to gain information about the exercise types in Basic Reading I and the students’ problem in reading.
Responding to the first question, the exercise types used were multiple-choice, matching, true-false, short-answer question, fill in the blank, reading aloud, reading faster, games, discussion, reader’s log, and online tasks. Moreover, the exercise types aforementioned were used to develop and train reading skills in Basic Reading I. The reading skills were previewing, prediction, skimming, scanning, finding pronoun referents, making inferences, and guessing words meaning from context. Responding to the second question, the research revealed the students’ problems in reading were due to text characteristics, reader characteristics, and interaction between reader and text.
The researcher concluded that short-answer question was the exercise type that was most likely used in Basic Reading I. Moreover, the research revealed the students’ preference to exercise types in Basic Reading I that true-false was the favorite and easiest exercise type; the difficult type was summary and the type that developed skills most was reader’s log. In addition, the students’ problem in reading from text characteristics was lack of vocabulary. Meanwhile, the problem which was from reader characteristics was lack of background knowledge. Then, the problem which was from the interaction between reader and text was comprehension in which was influenced by the lack of vocabulary and the lack of background knowledge.
ABSTRAK
Sulistyaningtyas, Yunita. (2012). The Exercise Types in Basic Reading I of academic year 2011/2012 in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Membaca merupakan proses yang dinamis dan interaktif dimana siswa menggunakan kemampuan dan strategi yang berbeda, dan dikombinasikan dengan latar belakang pengetahuan. Oleh karena itu, salah satu tujuan mengajar membaca adalah memberikan kesempatan siswa untuk mengembangkan dan melatih kemampuan membaca mereka. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, para pengajar menggunakan tipe latihan yang bervariasi.
Ada dua masalah dalam penelitian ini: (1) apa saja tipe latihan yang digunakan di kelas Basic Reading I? (2) apa masalah siswa dalam membaca? Penelitian ini memiliki dua tujuan yaitu untuk mengetahui tipe-tipe latihan di kelas Basic Reading I dan masalah para siswa dalam membaca.
Peneliti mengobservasi, mengumpulkan dokumen misalnya handout mingguan dan silabus dari Basic Reading I kelas D, memberikan kuesioner kepada siswa dan dosen, dan mewawancarai empat siswa secara acak untuk menjawab pertanyaan. Partisipan dalam penelitian ini adalah siswa dan dosen dari Basic Reading I kelas D tahun ajaran 2011/2012. Data dikumpulkan melalui observasi, dokumen, kuesioner, dan wawancara. Peneliti menerapkan penelitian kualitatif khususnya survei dan analisis dokumen. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan informasi tentang tipe-tipe latihan di kelas Basic Reading I dan masalah siswa dalam membaca.
Untuk menjawab masalah pertama, tipe latihan yang digunakan adalah multiple-choice, matching, true-false, short-answer question, fill in the blank, reading aloud, reading faster, games, discussion, reader’s log, dan online tasks. Tipe-tipe latihan tersebut digunakan untuk melatih dan mengembangkan kemampuan atau strategi membaca yang dipelajari di Basic Reading I. Strategi membaca yang dipelajari adalah previewing, prediction, skimming, scanning, finding pronoun referents, making inferences, dan guessing word meanings from context. Untuk menjawab masalah kedua, penelitian ini menemukan masalah siswa dalam membaca yaitu berasal dari karakteristik teks, karakteristik pembaca, dan hubungan antara pembaca dan teks.
Peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa short-answer question adalah tipe latihan yang sering digunakan di Basic Reading I. Penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa tipe true-false adalah tipe latihan yang paling disukai dan paling mudah menurut siswa, summary adalah tipe yang paling sulit dan reader’s log adalah tipe yang paling dapat mengembangkan kemampuan dan melatih strategi membaca siswa. Selain itu, masalah siswa dalam membaca ditinjau dari karakteristik teks adalah kurangnya kosakata; dari karakteristik pembaca adalah kurangnya latar belakang pengetahuan; sedangkan dari hubungan antara pembaca dan teks, berasal dari pemahaman membaca yang juga berhubungan dengan kurangnya kosakata dan latarbelakang pengetahuan.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank everyone who supports me until I can accomplish the
research. Therefore, first of all, I would like to address my deepest gratitude to
Allah SWT because without His guidance, I could not have accomplished this
research.
I give my special gratitude to Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd. M.Pd. as my
major sponsor, for her guidance, patience, and especially challenge and trust that
can encourage me to work on the research. Her comments, correction, suggestion
for the research were the biggest contribution. Without her help, I would not have
been able to finish my thesis. Moreover, I would also like to thank Henny
Herawaty, S.Pd., M.Hum., for the opportunity given to me to conduct my study
on her Basic Reading I class.
Furthermore, I thank all participants in my research. The research would
not have been accomplished without their cooperation and participation. I also
would like to give my gratitude to all PBI’s lecturers from whom I have learnt
many valuable things. In addition, I thank the PBI’s staff and library staff who
helps me much.
Then, my special gratitude devotes to my parents. My father, Bapak,
Sumarjiyo, S.Pd., who has passed away and may God give him rest in peace. This
thesis is my obligation to him and also my beloved mother, Ibu, Dra. Sri Rahayu
Tyas Wibowo, who always supports me in everything I do. My sister, Een, is my
I would also thank my best friends in PBI Sanata Dharma University,
Widi, Sance, Eboy, Rima, and Ruddy for their trust and friendship. They are the
best friends I have ever met. I thank them for the happy and sad moment we had
together. I also would not forget to say thanks to Merici who has given me useful
advice, Novi, and Suster Yusta. I also thank all my classmates in PBI Sanata
Dharma University. They have given me a wonderful experience.
Moreover, I would like to thank them who have helped me to finish my
research but the names have not been stated here. May God bless them all forever.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... v
ABSTRACT ... vi
ABSTRAK ... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... x
LIST OF TABLES ... xii
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Research Background ... 1
B. Problem Formulations ... 6
C. Problem Limitations ... 7
D. Research Objectives ... 7
E. Research Benefits ... 7
F. Definitions of Terms... 8
1. Types of Exercise ... 8
2. Basic Reading I ... 9
3. Students of Sanata Dharma University ... 9
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 10
A.Theoretical Description ... 10
1. Definitions of Exercises ... 10
2. Three Levels of Choosing Exercises by Teachers ... 12
3. Types of Exercises ... 12
4. Theory on Reading ... 21
a. The Process of Reading ... 21
c. Reading skills ... 24
d. Comprehension in Reading ... 27
e. Problems in Reading ... 28
5. Teaching Reading for University Students ... 28
B.An Overview of Basic Reading I ... 30
C.Theoretical Framework ... 32
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 35
A.Research Method ... 35
B.Research Setting ... 36
C.Research Participants ... 37
D.Instruments and Data Gathering Techniques ... 39
E.Data Analysis Techniques ... 46
F. Research Procedures ... 51
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 53
A.Exercise Types Used in Basic Reading I ... 53
1. An overview of exercise types used in Basic Reading I ... 53
2. Exercise types of 1st, 8th, and 15th meetings of Basic Reading I .... 78
B.Student’s Problems in Reading when Doing Exercises ... 83
1. Text Characteristics ... 84
2. Reader Characteristics ... 86
3. Interaction between Reader and Text ... 87
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 89
A.Conclusions ... 89
B.Recommendations ... 91
REFERENCES ... 93
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Reading skills aimed in Basic Reading I... 31
2.2 Reading materials and the text genre in Basic Reading I ... 31
2.3 Reading skills aimed and the reading skills aimed ... 32
3.1 Part A data of student questionnaire ... 42
3.2 Part B data of student questionnaire ... 43
3.3 Data of first question in Part C ... 44
3.4 Data of lecturer questionnaire ... 45
3.5 Data of document analysis ... 48
3.6 Relation of reading skills aimed and the exercise types used ... 48
4.1 Reading materials, reading skills aimed, and exercise types used in Basic Reading I ... 56
4.2 Exercise types used to train and develop the reading skills ... 58
4.3 Students’ preferences of exercise types used in Basic Reading I ... 77
4.4 Reading materials, reading skills aimed, and exercise types used in 1st, 8th, and 15th meeting ... 81
4.5 Exercise types used to train and develop the reading skills aimed in 1st, 8th, and 15th meeting ... 82
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A: Observation result and Online Tasks... 97
Appendix B: Student questionnaire and Lecturer Questionnaire ... 109
Appendix C: Transcripts of Interview ... 118
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The research investigates the use of exercise types in Basic Reading I by
first semester students of academic year 2011/2012 Sanata Dharma University.
This chapter presents the research background, problem formulations, problem
limitations, research objectives, research benefits, and definitions of terms.
A. Research Background
Language has contributed greatly to the progress made by mankind by
providing, not only the external social skill of communication, but also by giving
man an advanced type of shorthand which has enabled him to communicate with
himself in thought (Moyle, 1972, p.22). Reading is such of a written language.
Moreover, reading is an active skill that involves the reader, the text, and the
interaction between the two. The acquisition of reading skills is a very important
aspect of first (L1) as well as second (L2) or foreign language (FL) literacy.
Reading in a L2 or FL is a dynamic and interactive process, during which learners
make use of a variety of skills and strategies, combined with background
knowledge, L1-related knowledge and real-world knowledge to arrive at an
understanding of written material (Aebersold & Field, 1997, p.ix as cited in
Constantinescu, 2007). On the other hands, reading is a process in which we look
at words printed on a page and derived some meaning from them (Raygor &
Meanwhile, it is important to view any method of teaching. To successful
English language teaching and learning, teachers need to define the goals and
objectives on their teaching (Davies, 2008, p.3). Nevertheless, there is no known
correct or perfect way to approach the teaching reading in the present state of
knowledge (Moyle, 1972, p.28). This is because the process of reading is such a
complex mixture of individual abilities, skills, and personal traits. However, the
general objectives of teaching reading can derive from comprehension, speed, etc.
as known that reading comprehension is seen as very complete understanding of a
topic (Raygor & Raygor, 1985). It is said that although different readers may
engage in very different reading processes, the understanding they end up with
will be similar.
Hence, one of the teaching reading goals in a classroom is giving the
opportunity for teachers to develop their students’ ability in reading such a
reading comprehension. Nevertheless, the teachers should pay attention to the
teaching goals and objectives that should be apparent to the learners. They should
feel that every activity the teachers do with the learners is worthwhile, and that the
whole course is worthwhile (Davies, 2008, p. 5). Therefore, to develop the
students’ reading skills, teachers need a kind of assessment devices, for example
assignment, homework, and practice (Miller, Linn, & Grounlund, 2009, p.26).
They are used as the way to reach the goals and objectives of the teaching and
learning. Homework and practice are instructional techniques that are well known
to teachers. Both provide students with opportunities to deepen their
3
beginning. It is naturally obvious that practice is necessary for learning of any
type (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, p. 60).
According to Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001, p.67), students
should adapt and shape what they have learned while practicing. Practice has a
classroom implication that is students must adapt skills as they are learning them.
In fact, one can think of skill learning as involving a phase that is called as
“shaping phase”. During this “shaping phase”, learners focus on their conceptual
understanding of skills. They should follow procedures effectively. The
generalization of practice notes that skills should be learned to the level that
students could perform them quickly and accurately.
In addition, Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) states that to facilitate
the skill development, students should be encouraged to keep track of their speed
and accuracy. It uses the idea of “focused practice” (Marzano, Pickering, &
Pollock, 2001, p. 70). It is particularly important when students are practicing a
complex, multistep skill or process. For example, there are some aspects to make
troublesome for students, and the students might need to be given some exercises
that help them to focus on one objective they want to reach. This type of exercises
is referred to as focused because the learner still engages in the overall skill or
process in the teaching learning activity.
Furthermore, teachers typically set time aside for modeling the skill or
process, for providing guided practice with the steps of the skills or process, and
then for assigning independent practice sessions. It is also important if students
about speed reading, then teacher should set a time and steps to the material.
Homework and practice are ways to provide students with opportunities to refine
and extend their knowledge. Teachers can use both of these practices as powerful
instructional tools (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, p. 70).
Based on Piepho in the “Communicative teaching of English” by Candlin
(1983, p. 45), practice is seen as part of a method and is introduced through sets of
integrated exercises as a means towards curriculum objectives. Practice demands
the learners’ willingness to do a set of exercises or a sequence of tasks. Generally,
practice is likely to be most effective when it is followed by communicative or
interpretive tasks. The tasks or exercises should make the learners clear that the
tasks are a combination of cognitive and linguistic skill.
Later on Piepho as cited by Candlin (1983, p. 46) explains that exercises
are not simply a didactic organization. It involves the relationship between the
teachers and the learners. Thus, the essential conditions for successful teaching are
patience, encouragement, praise, and helping every learner continually towards
the mastering of learning. The way of the teachers can look after every individual
learner in this way has organizational or procedural, which is set of repeated
exercises. These exercises are not always to be terminated in course book unit or
lesson, but it can be form handouts compiled by the teacher. It sequences every
learner to achieve the learning objective and to master the skills or sub-skills the
related subject, for example, the lecturers can compile the material from internet,
5
course. It likes what Moyle (1972) explains that teachers should know the purpose
of giving exercise to fulfill the students’ needs.
The value and effectiveness of exercise lie not only in the more or less
automatically correct language produce, but also more importantly in the
requirement they force, like formal drill in which the teacher make his purposes
clearly through the exercises. Moreover, learners assess the value of exercise in
terms of the degree to which their particular objective is fulfilled by the activity
required by exercises (Phiepho as cited in Candlin, 1983, p. 47).
Moreover, when doing the exercises, students can face some problems.
The problems can come from the motivation, lack of words, environment, etc.
This situation influences their interest to do the exercise. The similar problems
also can occur in doing reading exercises. When the students are given some
exercises about reading comprehension, they may fail to comprehend a text
because of their interpreting text process. The problem when interpreting a text is
that the readers supposedly reduce their focus on what they should understand. As
known that comprehending a text for a reader is crucial. It is related to the
meaning from a text. Meaning is created in the interaction between a reader and a
text. The text has what Halliday (1979) and Widdowson (1979) called meaning
potential, and the potential is realized in the product of understanding only by
readers reading (both are cited in Alderson, 2000, p. 6).
Nevertheless, the researcher takes Basic Reading I as the research
subject. Basic Reading I provides the students with various exercise types for
joined the Basic Reading I class did some different types of exercises. They were
trained to develop their reading skills and reading comprehension. They stated
that they could improve their reading skills and reading comprehension because
they were doing the exercises given by the lecturer. The examples of exercise
types used were multiple choice, true-false, matching, short-answer question, fill
in the blank, etc.
Since Basic Reading I was one of the subject in English Education Study
Program, it had the course objectives. The objectives are seen to obtain the goal of
the course or subject. The students are provided with the hands-on experience in
applying the reading strategies when reading various types of texts. Moreover, the
course helps the students develop their English vocabulary and reading aloud
ability. It also helps the students become independent and effective readers. The
topics of this course include basic reading skills which consist of various reading
strategies and exercises (Syllabus of Basic Reading I, 2011). Thus, the research
will focus on the use of exercise types in Basic Reading I and students’ problem
in reading. The title of the research is the exercise types in Basic Reading I of
academic year 2011/2012 in English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University.
B. Problem Formulations
Based on the previous part, which is the research background, there are
two problems formulated to this research. The problems are as follows.
1. What are the exercise types used in Basic Reading I?
7
C. Problem Limitations
There are several classes for reading in English Education Study Program
of Sanata Dharma University. However, the researcher limits the subject to Basic
Reading I. It is because the data gathering will be done in odd semester and the
objectives of Basic Reading I class still emphasize on the development of the
basic reading skills. In this case, the students of Basic Reading I are given some
exercise types during the course. The exercises may differ in several types such as
multiple-choices, fill in the blank, matching, etc. The students do the exercises
and get the problems in reading when doing such the exercise. Hence, the
researcher limits the discussion on the use of the exercise types in Basic Reading I
class of first semester students in Sanata Dharma University and its problems in
reading.
D. Research Objectives
This study intends to find the answer the two questions stated in problem
formulation. There are two objectives. The first is to find out the types of exercise
used in Basic Reading I. The second is to know the students’ problems in reading
when doing the types of exercise in Basic Reading I
E. Research Benefits
This research will primarily benefit the students, the lecturers, and other
researches. They are as follows.
1. The students
The research will be useful for the students in Sanata Dharma University
exercise that they use in the reading class, will help them to know which exercise
types they like most in Basic Reading I course and what problems that they face in
doing the exercise, so that they can anticipate the problem before facing the
exercise types.
2. The lecturers
The research is also useful for the lecturers because the lecturers will know
which type of exercise their students may have the problems and know the
purpose of giving exercise to fulfill the students’ needs (Moyle, 1972).
3. Other researchers
Other researchers mean people who will conduct the similar research. This
research will be useful because they will have a method view of how to do the
research. The other researcher also can apply the similar research in different
subject or participants.
F. Definitions of terms
In order to make common conception with the readers about some
terminologies used in this research, the researcher defines some terms as follows.
1. Exercise types
Exercise types are kinds of exercise used for developing particular skills in
a course since an exercise aims to give the students opportunities to deepen their
understanding and relative to content (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, p.
60). In this study, exercise types are kinds of exercises that are used as the
9
2. Basic Reading I
Basic Reading I is one of the compulsory courses in English Education
Study Program. This course is taken in the first semester (Universitas Sanata
Dharma, 2011). It is designed to introduce students with the reading strategies. In
this course, the students are provided with the hands-on experience in applying the
reading strategies when reading various types of texts. Moreover, the course helps
the students develop their English vocabulary and reading aloud ability. It also
helps the students become independent and effective readers. The topics of this
course include basic reading skills which consist of various reading strategies and
exercises (Syllabus of Basic Reading I, 2011).
3. Students of English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma Univeristy
English Education Study Program Students of Sanata Dharma University
is the person who is listed as a student in English Education Study Program of
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents detailed theories related to the research of the
exercise types used in Basic Reading I Sanata Dharma University in first semester
students’ academic year 2011/2012. This chapter will be divided into three parts;
they are theoretical description, an overview of Basic Reading I, and theoretical
framework.
A.Theoretical Description
This theoretical description concerns the related theories used to support
the accomplishment of the study. There are five major areas. They are definition
of exercises, three levels of choosing exercises, types of exercises, theory on
reading, and teaching reading for university students.
1. Definition of exercises
Assessment of student learning requires the use of techniques for
measuring student achievement. Assessment is more than a collection of
techniques, however. It is a systematic process that plays a significant role in
effective teaching, It begins with the identifications of learning goals, monitors the
progress students make toward those goals and ends with a judgment concerning
the extent to which those goals have been attained (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund,
2009, p.26). Hence, teachers take time to construct and select the assessment type,
11
Homework, assignment, tasks, exercises, and the like are the assessment type that
used in a classroom. As explained by Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001),
homework and practice are instructional techniques that are well known to
teachers. Both provide students with opportunities to deepen their understanding
and skills relative to content that has been initially presented to them.
Piepho as cited by Candlin (1983, p. 46) explains that exercises are not
simply a didactic organization. It involves the relationship between the teachers
and the learners. Thus, the essential conditions for successful teaching are
patience, encouragement, praise, and helping of every learner continually towards
the mastering of learning. The way of the teachers can look after every individual
learner in this way has organizational or procedural, which is set of repeated
exercises. These exercises are not always to be terminated in course book unit or
lesson, but it can be form handouts compiled by the teacher. It sequences every
learner to achieve the learning objective and to master the skills or sub-skills the
related subject, for example, the lecturers can compile the material from internet,
and this compilation is based on the students’ need and the objectives of the
course. It likes what Moyle (1972) explains that teachers should know the purpose
of giving exercise to fulfill the students’ needs.
The value and effectiveness of exercise lies not only in the more or less
automatically correct language produce, but also more importantly in the
requirement they force, like formal drill in which the teacher make his purposes
terms of the degree to which their particular objective is fulfilled by the activity
required by exercises (Phiepho in Candlin, 1983, p.47).
2. Three levels of choosing exercises by teachers
McNeil, Donant, and Alkin in How to Teach Reading Successfully
mentioned the three levels used by teachers to choose exercises. The levels are
goal level, the instructional objectives or skills level, and the activity level (1980,
p. 8).
a. The goal level
A reading goal is one level of purpose for the guidance of educational
activity (p. 8). Statements of goals imply both values and commitment of
instruction for their attainment.
b. The instructional objectives or skills level
An instructional objective is a statement of what pupils are supposed
know, be able to do, or believe as a result of instruction (pp.8-9).
c. The activity level
Activities or learning opportunities include the lessons, reading selections,
games, learning centers, discussions, cassettes, films, all of the things and events
that learners engage in when learning to read (p.9).
3. Types of exercise
Classroom tests and assessments play a central role in the evaluation of
13
outcomes and indirect evidence concerning others (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund,
2009, p.139). Many different types of assessment data might be useful in a
particular situation. The teaching-learning process involves a continuous and
interrelated series of instructional decisions concerning ways to enhance student
learning (p. 28). Assessment, on the other hand, may include both quantitative
descriptions (measurement) and qualitative (non-measurement) of students as in
figure 2.1 (p. 29).
Tests and other assessments procedures can also be classified terms of
their functional role in classroom instruction (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009,
p.38). The categorized are as follows.
a. Format of assessment
1) Selected-response test is that students select response to question from
available options.
2) Complex-performance assessment is that students construct extended
response or performs in response to complex task (p.45).
b. Use in classroom instruction
1) Placement assessment is concerned with the student’s entry performance and
typically focuses on questions. It is to determine student performance at the
beginning of instructions.
2) Formative assessment is used to monitor learning progress during
instructions. Its purpose is to provide continuous feedback to both students and
teachers concerning learning successes and failures. Formative assessment
instruction. Because formative assessment is directed toward improving learning
and instruction, the results are typically not used for assigning course grades. To
be effective tools of teaching and learning, formative assessments must be
consistent with important student learning goals (p.21). Teachers must be able to
control the time that formative assessments are administered and the choice of
tasks that students are asked to perform. Thus, exercises are kind of formative
assessment.
3) Diagnostic assessment is a highly specialized procedure. It is concerned with
the persistent or recurring learning difficulties that are left unresolved by
formative assessment. The aim of diagnostic assessment is to determine the causes
of persistent learning problems and to formulate a plan for remedial action.
4) Summative assessment typically comes at the end of a course of instruction. It
is designed to determine the extent to which the instructional goals have been
achieved and is used primarily for assigning course grades or for certifying
student mastery of the intended learning outcomes (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund,
2009, pp.38-39).
In planning for a reading assessment, for example, a list of the reading
skills and the number of test items for measuring each skill may be sufficient for
specifying what the test is to measure (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009, p.149).
Tests and assessments given during instruction provide the basis for formative
assessment (p.141). Teachers commonly call these formative tests as learning
15
used various types of test items as the exercise intended to develop the reading
skills. The types of items used are as follows.
1. Supply type is the type that requires students to supply the answer (p.151).
Both short answer and completion are the types that can be answered by a word,
phrase, number, or symbol.
a. Short answer
Short answer uses to direct question. The short answer is suitable for
measuring a wide variety of relatively simple learning outcomes (p. 172). For
example, “what is the name of the man who invented the steamboat? (Robert
Fulton)” (p.172). Short-answer question provides possibility to interpret the
students’ response to see if they have really understood (Alderson, 2000, p. 227).
b. Completion
Completion is used to answer the incomplete statement. It is like fill in the
blank. For example, “the name of the man who invented steamboat is _________
(Robert Fulton)” (p.172). Fill in the blank type required students to read a text,
read a summary of the same text, from which key words have been removed.
Their task was to restore the missing words (Alderson, 2000, p.240).
Both short answer and completion are common used in as follows.
1) Knowledge of terminology
Example: “Lines on a weather map that join points of the same barometric
pressure are called _____________. (isobar)” (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009,
p.172).
Example: “A member of the United States Senate is elected to a term of
___________ years.” (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009, p.172)
3) Knowledge of Principles
Example: “If the temperature of a gas is held constant while the pressure applied
to it is increased, what will happen to its volume? (It will decrease)” (Miller, Linn,
& Gronlund, 2009, p.172)
4) Knowledge of method or procedure
Example: “What device is used to detect whether an electric charge is positive or
negative? (electroscope)” (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009, p.173)
5) Simple interpretations of data
Example: “How many syllables are there in the word Argentina?” (Miller, Linn,
& Grondlund, 2009, p.173)
2. Selection types is the type that requires the students to select the answer from
a given number of alternatives (p.151)
a. Multiple-choice
Multiple-choice type is quite used in any textbooks for teaching reading, in
fact, some exercises are developed with this type (Alderson, 2000, p.204). On the
other hands, the answers of every question in multiple-choice type include the
distractor to represent a reasonable misinterpretation of some part of the text. The
purpose of it is that if a learner responded with an incorrect choice, the nature of
his misunderstanding would be immediately obvious, and could then be ‘treated’
accordingly (Alderson, 2000, p.204). This type is used only one absolutely correct
multiple-17
choice type are measuring knowledge outcomes and measuring outcomes at the
understanding and application levels (pp.196-199).
b. True-False or alternative response
True-false is dichotomous items. Because of its apparent ease of
construction, are items with only two choices. Students are presented with a
statement which is related to the text and have to indicate whether it is true or
false, or whether the text agrees or disagrees with the statement (Alderson, 2000,
p. 222). The most common use of the true-false items is in measuring the ability
to identify the correctness of statements of facts, definitions of terms, statements
of principles, and the like (Miller, Linn, & Grondlund, 2009, p. 179). One of the
useful functions is in measuring the students’ ability to distinguish fact from
opinion (p. 180). The type also can become measures of understanding if the
opinion statements attributed to an individual or group are new to students. The
task then becomes one of interpreting the beliefs held by individual or group and
applying them to new situation. This type can measure the ability to recognize
cause-effect relationships. Here, students are to judge whether the relationship
between the statements is true or false (p.181).
c. Matching
The matching type consists of two parallel columns with each word,
number, or symbol in one column being matched to a word, sentence, or phrase in
the other column (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009, p.186). In any event, the
students’ task is to identify the pairs of items that are to be associated on the basis
information based on simple associations. It is a compact and efficient method of
measuring such simple knowledge outcome. This type provides two sets of stimuli
which have to be matched against each other, for example matching headings for
paragraphs to their corresponding paragraph (Alderson, 2000, p. 215). On the
other hands, students are asked to match the options associated with a given
keyword(s) (“Questions based on Bloom’s taxonomy”, n.d).
However, other exercise types used in Basic Reading I are as follows.
3. Summary
Summary is one of the variant of the free-recall test. Students read a text
and are required to summarize the main ideas, either of the whole text or a part, or
those ideas in the text that deal with a given topic. The requirement is that
students needed to understand the main ideas of the text, to separate relevant from
irrelevant ideas, to organize their thoughts about the text and so on, in order to be
able to do the task satisfactorily (Alderson, 2000, p. 232).
4. Reader’s log
Reader’s log gave some benefits for students such as students had an
occasion to speak their mind and it could encourage students to read more. Quite
often, the conversation strays off the actual topic of an article, and students were
able to express their feeling about important, sometimes personal, issues. In
addition, reader’s log also gave the lecturers benefits like the lecturers could help
the students particularly the quite students to revise their estimation of the
19
5. Games
Game, as Wright, Betteridge, and Buckby (2006, p. 1) stated that is an
activity that is entertaining and engaging, often challenging, and an activity in
which learner play and usually interact with others. Games are used because
language learning is a hard work, so that someone must make an effort to
understand, repeat accurately, to adapt, and to use newly understood language in
conversation and in written composition; games provide one way of helping the
learners to experience language; by making language convey information and
opinion, games provide the key features of ‘drill’ with the added opportunity to
sense the working language as living communication (p. 2).
Games can be done in group, individual, and pair work. Those types of
grouping give value in ensuring that each and every learner has optimum
opportunity for oral practice in using language. Moreover, games have eight
types; they are ‘care and share’, ‘do: move, mime, draw, obey’, ‘identify:
discriminate, guess, speculate’, ‘describe’, ‘connect: compare, match, group’,
‘order’, ‘remember’, and ‘create’ (pp. 4-5).
6. Reading aloud
Reading passages can be dealt with in the following ways: silent reading,
reading aloud by the teacher, reading aloud by individual members of the class
and choral reading (Candlin, 1967, p. 23). Reading aloud used to be one of the
normal methods for giving students language practice. Students’ pronunciation
mistakes were encouraged by that method, because students often had to
In early years, the reading aloud is useful for giving practice in
pronunciation, though the amount read by each student should be short. In case, if
they should read a long passage, attention will often be attracted to meaning, and
pronunciation will be forgotten. In addition, reading aloud also can be used to
improve tone, rhythm, and fluency; that is, an expression exercise. (P. Gurrey,
1955, pp. 97-98 as cited in Byrne, 1972, pp. 97-98)
7. Speed Reading
Speed in reading should be carried out by all students particularly students
of foreign language in order to increase their vocabulary and fluency of reading
(Byrne, 1972, p. 100). Speed Reading was aimed that increasing the students’
reading rate reinforces that the idea that it is possible to understand a passage
without necessarily reading every word, relating to students’ reading assignments
they who do not learn to read faster can spend three or four times longer than
others, and improving comprehension (Mikulecky, 2000, p.54).
8. Discussion
Discussion is strictly speaking in task activities. The goal is nonlinguistic.
The idea is to get something done via the language, to read a text and do
something with the information (Long & Crookes, 1992 as cited in Knutson,
1998). Whole tasks involve performance of reading in conjunction with other
skills: listening, speaking, or writing. For example, students in a small group
might read a number of texts, such as brochures, timetables, or maps, and listen to
radio weather or traffic reports in order to carry out the larger task of deciding on
21
deals with one category of information, and all students must communicate their
information to one another to come up with the best plan for the trip (Knutson,
1998).
9. Online tasks
Online task is a kind of online learning that uses computer and internet as
the medium. The computer is merely the vehicle that provides the processing
capability and delivers the instruction to learners (Clark, 2001 as cited in Ally,
n.d). Online learning is an educational material that is presented on a computer
(Carliner, 1999 as cited in Ally, n.d). Khan (1997 as cited in Ally, n.d) defines
online instruction as an innovative approach for delivering instruction to a remote
audience, using the Web as the medium. The aims of Online learning are to access
learning materials; to interact with the content, instructor, and other learners; and
to obtain support during the learning process, in order to acquire knowledge, to
construct personal meaning, and to grow from the learning experience.
4. Theory on reading
The theory of reading presents three major kinds. They are the process of
reading, kinds of reading activities, comprehension in reading, reading skills, and
problems in reading.
a. The Process of Reading
The number of different theories of reading is simply overwhelming: what
it is, how it is acquired and taught, how reading in a second language differs from
abilities, how it interfaces with memory. All these aspects are important, but will
probably never be brought together into coherent and comprehensive account of
what it is we do when we read. When we consider the complexities of analyzing
the texts: since the nature of what we read must have some relation to how we
read (Alderson, 2000, p. 1).
The process of reading is what we meant by ‘reading’ proper: the
interaction between a reader and the text. The ‘reader’ is presumably also
‘thinking’ about what he is reading: what it means to him, how it relates to other
things he has read, to things he knows, to what he expects to come next in the
texts like this. He is presumably thinking about how useful, entertaining, boring,
crazy, the text is. Evidently, many different things can be going on when a reader
reads: the process is likely to be dynamic, variable, and different for the same
reader on the same text at a different time or with a different purpose in reading
(Alderson, 2000, p.3).
Understanding the process of reading is presumably important to an
understanding of the nature of reading, but at the same time it is evidently a
difficult thing to do (Alderson, 2000, p. 4). The process is normally silent,
internal, private. It is sometimes said that, although different readers may engage
in very different reading processes, the understanding they end up with will be
similar. Thus, although there may be many different ways of reaching a given
understanding, what matters is not how you reach that understanding, but the fact
that you reach it, or, to put it another way, what understanding you do reach. The
23
supposedly reduced by a focus on what one has understood (Alderson, 2000, pp.
4-5).
b. Kinds of reading activities
Based on Sonka (1979, p.3), there are three kinds of reading activities.
They are as follows.
1) Intensive reading
Intensive reading is a reading activity that uses short reading text.
Intensive reading is done in class and it requires the students’ detail
understanding. Intensive reading lessons are whole-class activities during which
teacher leads the students to apply to a common text those reading skills which
they have already learned (Mikulecky, 1990, p. 32). In intensive reading lesson,
the right passage is crucial to its success. A teacher should take into account the
interest, abilities, and goals of the students.
2) Extensive reading
Urquhart and Weir (1998, p. 215) argue that extensive reading refers to
either silent reading in the classroom or reading, which is done unsupervised in
the library or at home, the aim being pleasure or practice, or both. Nuttal (1996, p.
127) as cited by Urquhart describes reading as the private world of the reader’s
own interest and offers some valuable suggestions for organizing such activities.
She argues that reading extensively is the easiest and the most effective way to
improve reading and it is easier to teach in a climate where people enjoy the
activity as well as value it for pragmatic reasons. Furthermore, Williams (1984,
long texts and emphasizes that it should normally be at the level of the students’
reading or below it.
3) Comprehension reading
Comprehensive reading refers to the kind of activity, which involves the
students’ previous background knowledge and put it together with the new
passage or the new information. Barnitz (1985, p. 14) argues that a major factor in
reading comprehension is the background knowledge or schemata of the reader.
Background knowledge can influence the interpretation of the text by providing
an overall context for the information being encoded, comprehended, and recalled.
Smith (1975) in Content Area Reading states that the only effective and
meaningful way in which anyone can learn is by attempting to relate new
experiences to what he knows or believes already. In comprehensive reading, the
readers are expected to comprehend the content of the passages or texts they read
by connecting the background knowledge presumed by the author.
c. Reading skills
Conscious development of reading skills is important because we are trying
to equip students for the future (Nuttall, 2000). "It is impossible to familiarize
them [students] with every text they will ever want to read; but what we can do is
give them techniques for approaching texts of various kinds, to be used for
various purposes, that is the essence of teaching reading" (Nuttall, 2000, p. 38).
Mikulecky (1990) listed the reading skills that students need to develop in order to
read standard English effectively (pp.25-26). Moreover, Byrne in Modules for the
25
that strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include
previewing, predicting, skimming, scanning, paraphrasing, and guessing from
context. The reading skills or strategies are as follows.
1) Previewing and predicting
Giving the text a quick once over to be able to guess what is to come.
Previewing is a high-speed reading skill. By previewing, the reader gains enough
information from the text to begin hypothesizing about it and to begin the
cognitive process of matching new information with what is already known. It is
for example, reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense
of the structure and content of a reading selection, Whereas predicting is using
knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and vocabulary
and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to make
predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make
predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content (Byrne, 1998).
2) Scanning
Scanning is looking through a text very rapidly for specific information.
Pugh (1978) in Reading in the Second Language describes that scanning as the
finding a match between what is required and what is given in a text, very little
information processed for long-term retention or even for immediate
understanding. Cushenbery and Thomas (1985) argue that scanning is much faster
than skimming since the reader is probably viewing pages of material in excess of
2,000 words in a minute. The reader’s mind is focused on what is being sought; it
specific question the reader has in mind. Scanning involves looking for particular
information, usually facts that one has read recently. This also involves looking
quickly through a text to locate a specific symbol or group of symbol, such as, a
particular word, phrase, name, figure, or date. The focus is in local comprehension
and most of the text will be ignored. Scanning is employed to the purpose of
looking for specific words or phrases, figures or percentages, dates of particular
events, and specific items in an index (Urquhart & Weir, 1998).
3) Guessing the meaning of unknown words from the context and finding
Pronouns referent
This skill is using such clues as knowledge of word parts, syntax, and
relationship patterns. It, then, is using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas
in the text as clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look
them up (Byrne, 1998). Moreover, recognizing and using pronouns, referents, and
other lexical equivalent are used as clues to cohesion (Mikulecky, 1990, p. 25).
4) Skimming
Urquhart and Weir (1998) argue that skimming involves processing a text
selectively to get the main idea and the discourse topic as the efficiently as
possible, which might involve both expeditious and careful reading and both
bottom-up and top-down processing. Cushenbery and Thomas (1985) describe
skimming as a quick type of text that is done to get the general gist of the
material. The text is processed quickly to locate important information, which
27
general sense of the text, to quickly establish a macro propositional structure as an
outline summary, and to decide the relevance of the texts to establish needs.
5) Making inferences
Many inferences are made by readers automatically and out of
consciousness. In fact, skilled reading requires such inference making. Yet,
readers’ think-alouds also contain many reports of inference making that involve
conscious reflection. These inferences vary in scope, from inferences about word
meanings to overall conclusions (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995, p.48).
d. Comprehension in reading
Comprehension ability is the ability to understand information in a text
and interpret it appropriately. However, comprehension abilities are much more
complex than the definition suggest (Grabe & Stoller, 2002, p.17). Balancing the
many skills needed for comprehension also requires that the reader be strategic.
The readers need to recognize processing difficulties, address imbalances between
text information and reader knowledge, and make decisions for monitoring
comprehension and shifting goals for reading. Being a strategic reader means
being able to read flexibly in line with changing purposes and the ongoing
monitoring of comprehension (p.18).
The notion of comprehending is both obvious and subtle. It is obvious in
that any person could say that understanding a text is the purpose of reading. One
outcome of reading being a purposeful and comprehending process is that also a
e. Problems in reading
Difficulty in reading is a common problem happened to a reader. The
reasons of difficulty in reading vary from person to person. Some people do not
read wide enough variety of materials (Raygor & Raygor, 1985, p.191). One of
the most important skills in reading is the knowledge of words. The number of
words that students know determines the difficulty and complexity of the material
students can read and understand. Failure to develop will definitely hold you back
in your efforts to improve comprehension (Raygor & Raygor, 1985, p.xi).
According to Pressley and Afflerbach, problems during reading can be due
to text characteristics, reader characteristics, or interactions between text and
reader. On the text side, there are a number of ways that text can be poorly
written, from problems at the word level to the overall meaning of the passage. On
the reader side, difficulties can be due to lack of background for text topic or
insufficient lexical knowledge. There can be difficulties due to reader-text
interactions; for example, when beliefs of readers clash with opinions expressed in
texts (1995, p.66).
5. Teaching reading for university student
In college, the reading material will be more varied such as textbooks,
supplementary books, and some of those will have been written in other centuries
(Wood, 1991). It is not just textbook and supplementary book, but also other
reading materials, for instance, scholarly articles and reports, class handouts and
instructions, exam questions, library materials of all sorts, and the various types of
29
read a novel, the purpose might include learning and remembering it for the test,
analyzing it and writing a paper about it, using it as a model for writing, skimming
and quoting from it in a research paper, or using it to generate ideas for a paper or
a class discussion.
The main purposes of the college reading are to read, understand, and
remember the material. Other purposes, however, might include consulting for
quick information, scanning to prepare for class, or reviewing to prepare for a test.
Reading will become a valuable source of information for you. You will also learn
that reading is thinking. Improved reading will result in the improved thinking
you need to generate new ideas and solve problems.
a) The needs to do the college reading
To become a better college reader, the students will need to work for
improvement in three areas. According Wood (1991), they are as follows.
(1) The students will need to increase your background knowledge and
vocabulary by reading widely about a variety subject
(2) The students will need to increase the awareness of how authors write and
which rules they follow
(3) The students will need to learn some new study skills and active reading
strategies to help them get the meaning from the reading
b) Active reading strategies
The key to more effective reading is to use active strategies that the
students can organize into an active reading process (Wood, 1991). Many times,
subject, they will ‘just read’ and understand enough. On the other hand, when the
material is complicated and new for the students, active strategies can help them
to get the meaning when ‘just reading’ is not enough.
B.Overview on Basic Reading I in English Education Study Program of
Sanata Dharma University
KPE 110 Basic Reading I is designed to introduce students with the
reading strategies. In this course, the students are provided with the hands-on
experience in applying the reading strategies when reading various types of
texts. Moreover, the course helps the students develop their English vocabulary
and reading aloud ability. It also helps the students become independent and
effective readers. The topics of this course include: basic reading skills which
consist of various reading strategies and exercises. This course is compulsory
and offered in Semester I. There is no prerequisite course for Basic Reading I
(Syllabus of Basic Reading I, 2011).
On completing this course, the students will be able to do the learning
objectives. They are as follows.
a. read aloud with correct pronunciation
b. understand the types of the basic reading strategies
c. understand various types of texts.
d. apply the reading strategies when reading various types of texts.
Reading is one of the crucial skills besides listening, speaking, and
31
Mikulecky (1990, pp. 25-26), she states several basic reading skills such as
skimming, scanning, previewing, predicting, etc. However, Basic Reading I
course used reading skills as mentioned in Table 2.1.
No Skills aimed
1. Previewing 2. Predicting 3. Skimming 4. Scanning
5. Finding pronoun referents
6. Making inferences
7. Guessing word meanings from context
Table 2.1 Reading skills aimed in Basic Reading I course
Moreover, text is one of the crucial issues in reading which could motivate
students. Therefore, there were different genres of text types used in Basic
Reading I course. In addition, the use of the genre of the text type was to give
students another experience of different text types. Then, to learn each text types
better, the students were given different topics of reading material. The reading
materials were taken from any sources and chosen by the lecturer. Moreover, the
reading materials were adjusted to the genre of the text types aimed. Table 2.2
shows the reading material used in Basic Reading I and the genre of the text types
used.
No. Reading Materials Genre of the text types
1. Clothes to die Analytical Exposition
2. Why men don’t iron Analytical Exposition
3. - Reaping Rewards of learning English
- Bob Marley Biography
Recount
4. - Appointment in Samarra and other folktales
- The Chaser - Nicole
Narrative
5. Sulawesi Dive Quest Descriptive
6. Recipes Procedure
No. Reading Materials Genre of the text types
8. Dreams and it couldn’t be done Poems
9. Old ways new world News report
[image:45.612.104.508.246.572.2]10. Piracy bites Hortatory Exposition
Table 2.2 reading materials and the genre of the text used in Basic Reading I
Besides, the reading materials have correlation to the reading skills or
strategies. The reading materials, used in Basic Reading I are employed to train
reading skills or strategies. Table 2.3 is presented the reading materials and
reading skills used in Basic Reading I.
Reading materials Reading skills
Why men don’t iron Predicting, skimming, scanning, guessing word meanings
from contexts, reading aloud. Reaping rewards of
learning English
Previewing, scanning, guessing word meanings from context, reading aloud.
Appointment in Samarra and other folktales
Skimming, making inferences, finding pronoun referents, guessing word meanings from context, reading aloud.
Recipes Scanning, finding pronoun referents, guessing word
meanings from context, reading aloud
Humorous stories Skimming, finding pronoun referents, guessing word
meanings from context, reading aloud.
The Chaser Predicting, making inferences, guessing word meanings
from context, reading aloud. Dreams and it couldn’t be
done
Reading aloud, making inferences
Nicole Predicting, making inferences, guessing word meanings
from context, reading aloud.
Old Ways, New World Previewing, making inferences, finding pronoun referents,
guessing word meanings from context, reading aloud.
Table 2.3 reading materials and the reading skills aimed
C.Theoretical Framework
This section discusses the types of exercise types used in Basic Reading I
and students’ problems in reading when doing the exercises. Basic Reading I is
one kind of intensive reading activities. Intensive reading lessons are whole-class
activities during which teacher leads the students to apply to a common text those
33
of this subject course aforementioned is to introduce students with the various
reading strategies. Thus, this course provides the students with hands-on
experience in applying reading strategies when reading various types of texts.
The first section discusses about what the exercise types used in Basic
Reading I. Exercise types are kinds of exercise used for developing particular
skills in a course because an exercise aims to give the students opportunities to
deepen their understanding and related contents (Marzano, Pickering, &Pollock,
2001, p.60). Hence, Basic Reading I uses the exercise as the assessment to
measure the student-learning outcome and train the reading skills. The assessment
as what Miller, Linn, and Gronlund mention that in planning a reading
assessment, for example, a list of the reading skills and the number of test items
for measuring each skill may be sufficient for specifying what the test is to
measure (2009, p.149).
Therefore, the exercises use various types that are taken from the test item
types such as multiple-choice, matching, true-false, short-answer question, and fill
in the blanks ; and other exercise types such as reader’s log, online tasks,
discussion, games, speed reading, summary, and reading aloud. All of the exercise
types used in Basic Reading I have aims to train and develop reading skills or
strategies and the comprehension as well.
Moreover, the exercise types used in Basic Reading I are related to the
college reading that is stated by Wood (1991). In college reading, it requires
reading various reading material such as textbooks, supplementary books, and
their reading skills through exercise types like in Basic Reading I in order to
facilitate them in reading a various text.
In addition, the second section discusses the students’ problems in reading
when doing the exercise. Students can have problems in reading when they are
doing exercises in every type. According to Pressley and Afflerbach, problems
during reading can be due to text characteristics, reader characteristics, or
interactions between text and reader. On the text side, there are a number of ways
that text can be poorly written, from problems at the word level to the overall
meaning of the passage. On the reader side, difficulties can be due to lack of
background for text topic or insufficient lexical knowledge. There can be
difficulties due to reader-text interactions; for example, when beliefs of readers
clash with opinions expressed in texts (1995, p.66).
By using the different exercise types given Basic Reading I class, the
students develop and train their ability to read with using the appropriate reading
skills or strategies. Nevertheless, students can get problems in reading when they
are doing the exercise types. Those are related to the problem formulation of the
research that asks the exercise types used in Basic Reading I and students’
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses the method of this research. It also discusses the
process of conducting the research. This chapter is divided into six parts. They are
research method, research setting, research participants, instruments and data
gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure.
A.Research Method
The researcher employed a qualitative research to answer the problem
formulations in the first chapter. Qualitative research is multi-method in its focus
involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to subject matter (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994, p.2). This means that qualitative research studies things in their
natural settings, attempting to interpret the phenomena in terms of the meanings
people bring to them.
Since the research was a kind of qualitative research, the researcher used
four methods to collect the data. The methods were questionnaire, interview,
observation, and document analysis. Moreover, “a method of data collection using
questionnaires or interviews to collect data from a sample that has been selected to
represent a population to which the findings of the data analysis can be
generalized” is a survey (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007, p. 230). Thus, this research
This research also employed document analysis. Document analysis is one
of the methods that used for observing human behavior and features of the
environment in which the behavior occurs. The documents could be in the form of
written documents, visual media, audio media, and combination media.
Meanwhile, observation provides an additional source of data for verifying the
information obtained by other instruments (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2007, p.276). On
the other hands, the aim of interview is to explore more source of data that could
be useful for the data gathering (Best, 1970,p.186). Therefore, this study used four
instruments; they were observation notes, documents, questionnaire sheets, and
interview transcripts.
In addition, to analyze the data from the instruments, the researcher used
both qualitative method and quantitative method. According to Best (1983,
p.156), qualitative methods are those in which description of observations are not
ordinarily expre
