ABSTRACT
Patrick Anthonio Vespereza Andrada. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE JEWISH
AUTHORITIES AND JESUS’REINTERPRETATIONS OF TORAH AS THE STRUGGLE OF DEFENDING NATIONAL IDENTITY SEEN IN THE GOSPEL: A POSTCOLONIAL STUDY.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2015.
Gospel is a part of literary work. The gospel focuses on the life of Jesus. Jesus, as a main character in the gospel, lives in the Jewish society which is under the control of the Roman Empire. The Jews struggle to defend their national identity from any kind of colonial effects. The Jews do expect a Messiah, the one to defend their national identity and set them free from colonial domination.
Jesus’ decision to be the Messiah, for some of the Jews, especially the authorities, endangers the Jewish national identity. This conflict comes to the persecution of Jesus. Using literary approach, this research elaborates more the conflict between these two parties.
This research has three objectives of the study. The first one is to see
Jesus’ reinterpretations of Torah through his characterization, the second one is to
see how the reinterpretations bring conflict with the Jewish authorities, and the third one is to see the conflict from Postcolonial perspective. This is the focus of this research.
ABSTRAK
Patrick Anthonio Vespereza Andrada. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE JEWISH
AUTHORITIES AND JESUS’REINTERPRETATIONS OF TORAH AS THE STRUGGLE OF DEFENDING NATIONAL IDENTITY SEEN IN THE GOSPEL: A POSTCOLONIAL STUDY.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2015.
Injil, yang adalah bagian dari kitab suci, merupakan bagian dari karya sastra. Yesus yang merupakan tokoh utama dalam injil ini hidup bersama masyarakat Yahudi yang berada di bawah penjajahan kekaisaran Romawi. Bangsa Yahudi sebagai sebuah bangsa terjajah ingin mempertahankan identitas bangsanya dari segala pengaruh penjajahan. Bangsa Yahudi mengharapkan sosok Mesias untuk mempertahankan identitas bangsa mereka dan membebaskan mereka dari tangan penjajah. Keputusan Yesus untuk menjadi Mesias, bagi beberapa orang Yahudi khususnya para penguasa, dianggap membahayakan identitas bangsa mereka. Perseteruan terhadap Yesus pun muncul. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan sastra, penelitian ini menelaah lebih jauh perselisihan kedua pihak ini.
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menelaah pemahaman kembali dari Yesus mengenai Taurat melalui penokohannya, yang kedua adalah menelaah bagaimana pemahaman kembali ini menimbulkan konflik dengan para penguasa Yahudi, dan yang ketiga adalah menelaah konflik ini dari sudut pandang Poskolonial. Inilah yang menjadi tujuan utama dari penelitian ini.
Penelitian ini bersifat kepustakaan. Sumber cetak dan online digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Sumber utama dari penelitian in adalah kitab suci Good News Translation. Sumber sekunder yang digunakan adalah beberapa buku, jurnal dan artikel. Tahap pertama dalam analisa adalah menyeleksi dan menyusun sumber-sumber dan teori-teori terkait untuk mempermudah pembahasan dalam rumusan masalah. Tahap selanjutnya adalah pembahasan. Sumber-sumber dan teori-teori diterapkan sesuai dengan keterkaitannya dengan setiap rumusan masalah.
CONFLICT BETWEEN THE JEWISH AUTHORITIES AND
JESUS’ REINTERPRETATIONS OF TORAH AS THE
STRUGGLE OF DEFENDING NATIONAL IDENTITY SEEN
IN THE GOSPEL: A POSTCOLONIAL STUDY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
PATRICK ANTHONIO VESPEREZA ANDRADA Student Number: 114214101
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ii
CONFLICT BETWEEN THE JEWISH AUTHORITIES AND
JESUS’ REINTERPRETATIONS OF TORAH AS THE
STRUGGLE OF DEFENDING NATIONAL IDENTITY SEEN
IN THE GOSPEL: A POSTCOLONIAL STUDY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
PATRICK ANTHONIO VESPEREZA ANDRADA Student Number: 114214101
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
vii
True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing.
-Socrates-
Pleasure in the job put perfection in the work.
-Aristotle-
Difficulties in your life do not come to destroy you, but to help you realize your hidden potential and power. Let difficulties know that you too are difficult.
-Dr. A.P.I. Abdul Kalam-
And now I give you a new commandment: love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. If you have love for one another, then everyone will
know that you are my disciples.
-John 13: 34-35-
There is no shortcut in learning. What you have to do to understand a text is to read and RE-READ the text.
-Dr. F.X. Siswadi, M.A.-
For all the dreamers and all of you who are working on your undergraduate thesis. You always produce SOMETHING in your life in everything you do. Even when
you do NOTHING, you still produce SOMETHING… and it is NOTHING.
viii
For my beloved parents, families,
lecturers,
friends, those who support me, and those…
WHO DON’T LIKE
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, Mr. Paulus Sarwoto, M.A., Ph.D. for his patience, supports and love towards me during the making of this research from the very beginning until this final script. I also would like to express my gratitude to my co-advisor, Mrs. Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, M.Hum. for her advice and supports, and also to Mbak Ninik who has helped me for some administrative matters. I also give my gratitude to the library of Sanata Dharma University which has provided materials and sources that I need for the process.
The special gratitude I give to God and Jesus as God’s Logos and Messiah for the great blessing so that I can finish doing this research. I also give my gratitude to my families, especially my grandmother who has always supported and prayed for me. I want to thank Bu Mamik, Mbak Andri and Mbak Pipit who always serve me some food everyday when I get hungry. I also want to thank my friends, seniors and juniors in Karate INKAI for the happiness and smiles that always make me happy of being with them, and to my game net-friends; Counter Strike and Age of Empires warriors who always make me relax after doing my
research, and also my classmates who have accompanied me for 9 semesters in this campus. They are the best friends I have ever had. For all the names that I do not mention here, I also would like to thank them for all the support and love. May God bless them all.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... ii
APPROVAL PAGE ... iii
ACCAPTANCE PAGE ... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ... v
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... vi
1. The Jews under Babylonian Rule………...33
xi
CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS……….………....48
A.Jesus’ Reinterpretations of Torah………...………...48
1. Reinterpretation on Anger………...50
2. Reinterpretation on Adultery………...52
3. Reinterpretation on Divorce………..53
4. Reinterpretation on Vows……….………54
5. Reinterpretation on Revenge……….…...55
6. Reinterpretation on Sabbath………...56
7. Reinterpretation on King: to pay taxes or not……...59
8. Reinterpretation on the Son of God……….…...60
B.Conflict within the Society concerning Jesus’ Reinterpretations of Torah………..65
1. Reinterpretation on King: to pay taxes or not…………...66
2. Reinterpretation on Revenge and Love for Enemies……68
3. Reinterpretation on Sabbath………. 71
4. Reinterpretation on the Son of God………..73
C.The Conflict as the Struggle of Defending National Identity……...86
1. Jewish National Identity………... 86
a. Plot to Kill Jesus……..………91
b. Jesus before Pilate: Loyalty to Rome as Manipulated Identity...……….93
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION……….……….98
xii ABSTRACT
Patrick Anthonio Vespereza Andrada. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE JEWISH
AUTHORITIES AND JESUS’REINTERPRETATIONS OF TORAH AS
THE STRUGGLE OF DEFENDING NATIONAL IDENTITY SEEN IN THE GOSPEL: A POSTCOLONIAL STUDY.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2015.
Gospel is a part of literary work. The gospel focuses on the life of Jesus. Jesus, as a main character in the gospel, lives in the Jewish society which is under the control of the Roman Empire. The Jews struggle to defend their national identity from any kind of colonial effects. The Jews do expect a Messiah, the one to defend their national identity and set them free from colonial domination. Jesus’ decision to be the Messiah, for some of the Jews, especially the authorities, endangers the Jewish national identity. This conflict comes to the persecution of Jesus. Using literary approach, this research elaborates more the conflict between these two parties.
This research has three objectives of the study. The first one is to see Jesus’ reinterpretations of Torah through his characterization, the second one is to see how the reinterpretations bring conflict with the Jewish authorities, and the second one is to see the conflict from Postcolonial perspective. This is the focus of this research.
xiii ABSTRAK
Patrick Anthonio Vespereza Andrada. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE JEWISH
AUTHORITIES AND JESUS’REINTERPRETATIONS OF TORAH AS
THE STRUGGLE OF DEFENDING NATIONAL IDENTITY SEEN IN THE GOSPEL: A POSTCOLONIAL STUDY.
Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2015.
Injil yang adalah bagian dari kitab suci merupakan bagian dari karya sastra. Yesus yang merupakan tokoh utama dalam injil ini hidup bersama masyarakat Yahudi yang berada di bawah penjajahan kekaisaran Romawi. Bangsa Yahudi sebagai sebuah bangsa terjajah ingin mempertahankan identitas bangsanya dari segala pengaruh penjajahan. Bangsa Yahudi mengharapkan sosok Mesias untuk mempertahankan identitas bangsa mereka dan membebaskan mereka dari tangan penjajah. Keputusan Yesus untuk menjadi Mesias, bagi beberapa orang Yahudi khususnya para penguasa, dianggap membahayakan identitas bangsa mereka. Perseteruan terhadap Yesus pun muncul. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan sastra, penelitian ini menelaah lebih jauh perselisihan kedua pihak ini.
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menelaah pemahaman kembali dari Yesus mengenai Taurat melalui penokohannya, yang kedua adalah menelaah bagaimana pemahaman kembali ini menimbulkan konflik dengan para penguasa Yahudi, dan yang ketiga adalah menelaah konflik ini dari sudut pandang Poskolonial. Inilah yang menjadi tujuan utama dari penelitian ini.
Penelitian ini bersifat kepustakaan. Sumber cetak dan online digunakan dalam penelitian ini. Sumber utama dari penelitian in adalah kitab suci Good News Translation. Sumber sekunder yang digunakan adalah beberapa buku, jurnal dan artikel. Tahap pertama dalam analisa adalah menyeleksi dan menyusun sumber-sumber dan teori-teori terkait untuk mempermudah pembahasan dalam rumusan masalah. Tahap selanjutnya adalah pembahasan. Sumber-sumber dan teori-teori diterapkan sesuai dengan keterkaitannya dengan setiap rumusan masalah.
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Literature is a media to express one’s ideas, emotion, feeling, and thought about something. William Hudson in his book, An Introduction to the Study of Literature said that
Literature is the expression of life through the medium of language. It can be regarded as something essential as it contains real life, people, thought, and their feeling about life (Hudson, 1910: 10).
From his statement, Hudson wants to say that literature reflects human’s real life, thought and feelings and experiences of everyday life. Literature uses language as the medium. Hudson also added that in literature, there are some reasons of creating a literary work. First one is one’s desire of self-expression interest; one’s interest in people and their doings; one’s interest in reality
representation of human life which contains self-expression interest in reality. Ying Han, from Education Department of Zhejiang Province, argues in his journal with the title “Interdisciplinary Interpretation of the Bible” that “The bible is a complete fusion of art of literature, theology, ethics, and historical speculation”. Here, Han gives his argument about the status of a bible that it also conceives both religious value and literary value which are inseparable (Han, 2015: 170). The bible itself, according to Han, teaches us about the life of ancient world, which in this case is the ancient Hebrews; Jewish nation, “the origin of Christianity, the
early church” and many other historiesrelated to the Hebrew’s civilization and the
sequence of Christian’s events. He also argues that
The Bible is in narration. Superficially it is just plots, but in its structure, it contains historical, cultural and philosophical elements. It requires careful analysis to get the reasonable comprehension and answer. The Bible provides many perspectives to let either readers or teachers and students make analysis, synthesization and estimation freely, critically and creatively (Han, 2015: 172).
also has some genres like another literary work. Han also finds some genres and literary features in a bible
Old Testament includes the myth, tale, history, short story and philosophical story; New Testament has gospel, allegory and epistolary style. New Testament also contains literary features, especially the gospel, apostle letter and apocalyptic literature (Han, 2015: 172).
This shows that a bible also has the same characteristics with another literary work. This can certainly help people in order to understand not only about the history of ancient Hebrew and early church but also to develop the critical and creative thinking. Nonetheless, in analyzing a bible as a literary text, it is important to consider the criticism applied. According to Leland Ryken, a professor of English from Wheaton College mentions in his articles with the title “Words of Delight: The Bible as Literature”. In his article, Ryken says that in
order to analyze a bible, the student should comprehend the literary criticism. The criticism that fits with the bible is traditional criticism.
… what biblical scholars need to hear most from literary critics is that old- fashioned- critical concepts of plot, character, setting, point of view and diction may be more useful than more glamorous and sophisticated theories (Ryken, 1990: 8).
mentions them as theological, historical and literary impulses. These three impulses then be the distinctiveness of a bible with another genre of literary work (Ryken, 1990: 8). The application of literary criticism to the bible, according to Ryken, began many years ago in high schools and college English Departments. The National Council of Teacher of English, in 1975, made a survey and found out that the courses of bible using literary criticism got the top-10 ranked of the 180 that commonly offered in high school courses (Ryken, 1990: 4). Even though this research has been done many years ago, there are still some solicitude that whether or not a bible should conceive the acceptance of being a fiction. Ryken says that this fear was actually appeared as the misconception of a literary work itself. He says that “fictionality” is not an essence of a literary work. What makes the text literary is not the historical and fictive elements but more to how the author of the work designs the work; “the writer’s selectivity and molding of the material” by paying no attention to whether or not it really happens. To apply the literary criticism to the bible will basically concern to what makes a text literary (Ryken, 1990: 12).
found in the bible related to this context can be analyzed by using Postcolonial theory. R.S. Sugirtharajah, in his book with the title The Postcolonial Biblical Reader said that
What postcolonial biblical criticism does is to focus on the whole issue of expansion, domination and imperialism as central forces in defining both biblical narratives and biblical interpretation (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 17). From this statement, Sugirtharajah wants to say that the focus of postcolonial biblical criticism is all about the problem of the development of imperial power which becomes the main forces or factors of defining the biblical narratives and the way it is interpreted or understood by people.
considered as one of their national identities which they respect so much. The reason of choosing this topic is because the writer wants to observe many problems appeared in the Jewish nation as a colonized nation and how this condition shapes their way of thinking, deeds and actions which then leads to the conflict with Jesus. There are many studies which also use postcolonial theory that discuss the problem similar to what this topic does but those studies have different objectives. This research manages to develop the study of the Jewish nation as a colonized nation by adding some more objectives and findings different from what other studies do. What makes this research worth studied is the developing of the new way of illuminating biblical texts. Sugirtharajah says that the biblical studies have already used external sources and historical criticism in order to enlighten the bible (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 5). Postcolonialism, however, is the new critical theory that can develop the study of biblical text. Fernando Segovia says in his essay that postcolonial theory is the “most appropriate, most enlightening and most fruitful” theory to analyze the bible as this theory has its three ways of identifying the problems; “the inescapable and omnipresent reality
of empires” which constructs Judaism and early Christianity texts, Western
interpretation of Jewish and Christian writings that is affected by the colonial influences, and the biblical critics came from the earlier empires who tried to threaten the received readings (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 5).
literary approaches and theories. This research elaborates the problems related to Jesus and the Jewish authority then analyzes it using some related theories which are supported also by some related studies and backgrounds.
B. Problem Formulation
As the effort to see the resistance of the Jews toward Jesus’ criticism of Torah, the writer divides the problems into three research questions.
1. What are Jesus’ reinterpretations of Torah?
2. How do Jesus’ reinterpretations of Torah bring conflict in the society especially with the Jewish authorities?
3. How does this conflict reinforce the Jewish authorities’ effort of defending the Jewish national identity?
C. Objectives of the Study
The writer’s aim of this study is first, to know Jesus’ reinterpretations that
D. Definitions of Terms
1. Torah :
Torah refers to all tradition of the Jews but the Torah refers to five books of Moses. It is the most important document used by the Jews for ages. The Jews believed that it is a given from God to Moses in Mount Sinai during their journey to the land of Israel. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/texts/torah.shtml)
2. Jewish authorities:
9 CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Review of Related Studies
This research is a Postcolonial research which observes the problem of Jewish people as colonized nation. Therefore, in order to support this research, the writer uses some related studies that have the same field with this research. First,
the writer uses an essay written by Philip Chia with the title. “On Naming the
First, is to offer a theological explanation for the defeat of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple. Second, it is to present a world in which Adonai is the sovereign Lord who is able to manipulate foreign rulers, even unbelievers, and is in control of events. Third, it is to reflect anger of
Adonai upon the people who have gone against Adonai‟s will. Fourth, by participating in the destruction of Jerusalem, Adonai brings an end to the
“older story” which “foreshadows” a “new story” about to be unfolded
with the possibility of hope (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 172).
From this statement, it can be said that the writer of Daniel theologically characterizes Adonai as the sovereign God who is powerful and able to control anything based on his will even to give both destruction and hope to his adherents. Hence, Chia then relates his way of thinking with the concept of Postcolonialism.
Chia finds that the writer of Daniel‟s postcolonial ideology is mirrored by Daniel
himself. Looking from what the narrator experiences, it can be said that there is a problem of identity crisis in the story.
Chia mentions some examples of this problem. First is the naming of the subjects. Here, Jehoiakim and some of his friends are given new Chaldean names from Nebuchadnezzar (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 176). The second example is the
giving of Babylonian‟s foods to Jehoiakim and his friends (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 179). Though these Jerusalem people have no enough power to resist the Chaldean names given by Nebuchadnezzar, they still can refuse to eat
identity, is “to erode the colonizer‟s ideology by which their past had been
devalued”. Chia shows how the writer of Daniel characterizes Nebuchandezzar as
“an arrogant fool” who never realized that it was the narrator‟s lord who makes
him victorious. By doing this, Chia argues that the writer of Daniel wants to share the history which devalues the colonizer. This means that the writer of Daniel
considers the colonizers “from a taker to a receiver”. This of course “upgrades” the identity of the colonized from the “passive manipulated to active manipulator, and from powerless loser to powerful giver”. Here, the narrator who mirrors the writer of Daniel shows how, as the colonized, experience the identity crisis as he and his friends are in a hybrid situation; being in the identity of the nativity and the identity imposed by the colonizer. What lies behind the problems, according to Chia, are religious factors implanted with culture. The faith of the narrator also takes part here. The narrator relies on no military power to defend him but religious power. By relaying on faith, he is the victorious.
The impacts of Babylonian Empire influence the writing of scripture and the Jewish culture. It does not only influence the writing of Daniel but also the writing of Kings. Another study that supports this idea is written by Kari Latuvus
with the title, “Decolonizing Yahweh: A Postcolonial Reading of 2 Kings 24 -251”. In this essay, Latuvus uses Postcolonial theory in order to see the problem of Babylonian Empire experienced by Jehoiachin, the next king of Judah after Jehoiakim. The aim of his study is to first, elucidate the message in the end of 2 Kings, more elaborates on the rehabilitation of Jehoiachin, and the second is to observe how theology is affected by colonialism. In his essay, Latuvus finds out that 2 Kings 24-25 mainly talks about the loss of political and social independence of southern state of Judah. Latuvus says that the “core crisis” of Hebrew Bible is the destruction of Jerusalem temple and the deportation of Jewish people. This deportation then makes Judah dispers and consequently leads to the contact and interaction with other cultures, which Latuvus says as “multicultural Orient”. As the result, this also leads to the condition of uncertainty then threats the ethnic identity ( Sugirtharajah, 2006: 186 ).
Latuvus finds out that it only involves several specific groups or those who are wealthy and have special social status and professional skills. In another side,
those who are left are “the poor of the land”. This marginalized group then by
Latuvus, is never been mentioned again in the latter text.
Compared to those who are politically related to the empire, this group are not important at all to be named, deported and even killed. This group, during the exile, establish a new governmental system in their homeland. They even make a rebellion but fail which cause the destruction of the city, temple, and palace, houses and walls (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 188). Latuvus finds out that all Babylonian cruelties mentioned in the text are always caused by the deeds of Israelites that do something against what their God wills. Both Jehoiachin and Zedekiah were the main people who caused the major destruction of Jerusalem as they both with their people committed a rebellion against the empire. Every rebellious activity they make only let them to the disastrous facts. Hence, Latuvus finds the inferiority attitude of the writer of 2 Kings. This inferior attitude is found in the characteristic of Gedaliah (25: 24). Babylonian Empire is considered as the one
which “is not to be afraid of...Babylonian should be “served” and the colonial power would let good things happen” and everything will be alright
characteristic of Yahweh as the one who is very responsible of Babylonian imperialism in the deuteronomistic history. The whole God-talks also changed because Yahweh acts based on his anger. It is different with Yahweh characteristic in pre- deuteronomistic tradition where Yahweh is seen as the love giver, source of life and blessing, and the creator of life. All these transformation, according to Latuvus, is basically influenced by the political power which compelled in theology (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 190). Latuvus ends his essay by giving some steps of decolonizing this image of Yahweh.
From this essay, the writer finds out that the colonization does affect the writing of the scribe and Jewish theology. Jewish nation really have a high regard for their Hebrew Bible. The figuration of Yahweh in the scribes which is constructed by colonial reality influences the Jewish way of thinking and acts. In short, the Jews‟ Hebrew Bible also plays an important and determined role in constructing the Jews way of thinking and acts. This study shows its relevance with this research as it talks about how important The Hebrew Bible is for the Jewish People. In this research, the writer uses this idea to see how the Jewish people recognize Torah as part of their scribes which finally put them in opposition with Jesus.
The fact that Hebrew Bible also takes part in shaping the Jews‟ way of
thinking and acts becomes the very precious opportunity for the empire to strengthen the imperial ideology and extraction. This argument is proved by Jon
problem of Persian imperialism internalized by the Jewish people, in this case the Yehud people in Jerusalem. The aim of his study is to describe the relation of
Persian imperialism to the Yehudites, how the Persia‟s imperialism finally affects
the canonization; what motivates the process of (re)producing the Yehudites‟
canonical scripture. During the time of Persian Empire in Yehud, the empire has been taking away the resources of the land which are the food, products and even human as the necessary task of imperialism. The empire then dominates also the physical resources of a large are for more than two centuries (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 79).
In order to easily take control over the land, the empire, in this case under Darius era, funds the temple construction in Jerusalem. This temple then plays not only its religious role but also political administrative role. Berquist also presumes that this temple even becomes a storehouse to keep the resources to be given to the empire. The Yehudites are turned into a long-term-extraction colony for the empire. In order to strengthen this colonial condition, Darius affects not only the material, economy, and infrastructure of the colony but also something more important related to the “ideological superstructure” of them (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 80). During the imperial era, Darius approves the colony to set up their own legal system of society including history and traditions but these are made, of course,
under the imperial‟s control. The empire establishes imperial administrative, consisting of the appointed governors and scribes, which is centred in the temple
to produce then publish documents, known as the King‟s Law contained laws and
Berquist shows examples of this King‟s Law asserted in the canonical scripture or
the Hebrew Bible texts
… the reference of King‟s Law in extant Hebrew Bible texts (Ezra 7:26),
the emphasis on public proclamation of the law (Deut 4:44–5:1; Josh 24:1–28; Neh 8:1–18), and the use of Aramaic similar to the imperial language in some texts (Gen 31:47; Jer 10:11; Dan 2:4–7:28; and Ezra 4:8–68, 7:12–16) … a fifth century canon (or pre-canon ) … and that a body of literature corresponding to the Primary History (Genesis–2 Kings) and including the Latter Prophets (Isaiah --Malachi) (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 82).
These are the examples of imperial ideology found in the Hebrew Bible which from them, the empire then constructs the Yehudite community‟s mind to
make such justification about their validity as colony. In this case, the Yehudites‟
they finds out that the canonical scripture is very important in the society, the empire takes part in the producing of the canonical scripture and uses it as the best mean of oppressing the Yehudites then easily advances the ideology of the empire.
What the writer wants to look from the findings of this essay is the problem that the producing of canonical scripture has been affected by the
colonizer‟s ideology. This means that there must be a mixture of the colonised
identity and the colonizers‟ as canonical scripture originally conceives the identity
of the Yehudites. These related studies give some adequate information about the background of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, the valuable thing which conceives their past history, laws, culture and tradition which they honour and preserve as their identity. These studies also give information about the relation of Jewish Hebrew Bible and imperialism; how imperial power constructs it and how it is used to strengthen imperial power. This study shows its relevance with this research as it talks about how imperial power managed to dominate the Jewish people using the Jewish Hebrew Bible, the national identity of the Jews. In this research, the writer uses the idea of this study as the starting point and the background to see why the Jewish people oppose Jesus criticism of Torah.
gospels, this group is many times involved in arguments with Jesus. The reason is the different viewpoint of understanding Torah, part of Jewish scriptures. In order to see further this problem, as this research aim to see this conflict, the writer uses
Helmut Merkel‟s essay with the title, “The Opposition between Jesus and Judaism” as the related study. In this essay, Merkel argues that the conflicts
between the Jewish authority and Jesus are the result of transformation between the synagogue and the church (Bammel and Moule, 1983: 129). This is because, Jesus is considered as the member of “a nationalistic resistance fighter”. Bultman, in Bammel and Moule, mentions some deeds of Jesus that trigger the conflict:
...breaking the Sabbath commandment, violation of the rules of purity, polemic against Jewish legalism, association with outcasts like tax-gatherers and prostitutes (Bammel and Moule, 1983: 130).
Samaritans like what is stated in Matthew 10:5. However, in other hand, Merkel in Bemmel and Moule says that Jesus treats the Gentiles the same as the tax-gatherers, the Samaritans and the sinners (Bemmel and Moule, 1983:134-135).
Merkel takes some example of Jesus‟ attitude toward the Gentiles from Luke
10:23, 11:29, 13:28. There Jesus puts the Samaritans as the good examples and comparison to the evil Jews. Jesus ”openness” to everybody, according to Merkel, is the way he actually separates religion from the “national soil”. Through this attitude, he is actually organizing the “Gentile mission”. Jesus himself many times causes some problems related to the interpretation of Torah. Merkel finds it in the saying of Matthew 8:21. Though it is not a big problem, this can be the attack to Torah as this is about the Fifth Commandment. Another important case concerning Torah is about Sabbath violation. Though Jesus himself thinks that he actually keeps the Sabbath holy but the Jews have different idea. Merkel says that Jesus actually reveals his contemporary understanding of Torah (Bemmel and Moule, 1983:138). By many times referring himself to “Son of Man”, Jesus stands not under but above Torah. This is the biggest reason of the conflict between him
and the Pharisees. Jesus‟ attitude, in this essay, is the trigger of conflict with some
From this related study, the writer finds out that the persecution of Jesus is
caused by his different standpoint of Torah. Jesus‟ way of interpreting Torah is different from what the Jewish people have in their Law. What the writer wants to see from this related study is what makes the clash between the Jewish authorities and Jesus. This study shows its relevance with this research as it also talks about the conflict emerged between Jesus and the Jewish people, especially the Jewish authorities. In this research, the writer also scrutinizes the conflict upholds in this related study but from Postcolonial theory.
These four related studies discuss about the struggle of the Jews in defending their national identity. The first three studies discuss about their relationship with the colonizers, and the last related studies about relationship with Jesus. In this research, the writer will develop these studies. The first three studies will be the starting point of the Postcolonial views. Because they discuss the colonial situation in which the Jews are in, these three studies can help the writer to understand the conflict in the gospel from Postcolonial views. While the last one study will be the starting point to observe the reason of persecuting Jesus from the Postcolonial perspective.
B. Review of Related Theories
1. Theory of Characterization
Characterization is the way the author describes a character in his work. Perrine in his book, Literature: Structure, Sound and Sense, says that there are two ways of characterization the author makes. First way is direct presentation. In this way the author directly describes or analyzes the character. The author can also use another character as the medium. The second way is indirect presentation. Here, the author describes the character by showing what the character does. Hence, the author lets the reader think and determine about the characteristics of the character (Arp and Johnson, 2009: 162). For the more accurate ways of characterization, the writer uses the theory written by M.J.Murphy.
M.J. Murphy in his book Understanding Unseens: An Introduction to English Poetry and the English Novel for Overseas Students mentions some ways
of characterizing or how to observe the characteristic of a character in a literary work.
a. Character‟s speech
b. Character‟s reactions
This is the way the author describes a character by showing how the character “reacts” to certain situations and events. Hence, the reader can get a clue
about the character‟s characteristics.
c. Character‟s thoughts
This is the way the author describes a character through what the character is thinking about. Here, as it is in thought, the character can do what do what he/she cannot do in his or her real life. Here, the reader can understand the
“secret” or “inmost” thoughts of a character then can understand the characteristics of him/her.
d. Character‟s mannerism
This is the way the author describes a character by showing what the character mannerism; habits, what he/she usually does (Murphy, 1972: 161-173).
2. Theory of Conflict
Robert Stanton in his book, An Introduction to Fiction says that there are two types of conflict.
1. Internal conflict
which make him or herself arguing and don‟t know which one to take. This conflict happens inside the mind of a character (Stanton, 1965: 16).
2. External conflict
This conflict happens including other selves. In this case, it happens between a character and other characters. This happens when both of them have their own desires and arguing each other. This conflict happens between a character and other character (s) and also with nature (Stanton, 1965: 16).
Perrine added that conflict happens as the impact from the clash of action, ideas, desires or wills. A character may have this conflict against other characters or a group of character. This could be as the external force: physical nature, society or “fate”. The conflict may be physical, mental, emotional and moral (Perrine, 2009: 104). This means that a conflict happens when there is a clash between oneself and his mind and also a clash between others.
Marvin Olsen in his book, Societal Dynamics: Exploring Macrosociology said that conflict always happens involving two or more actors, individual or organizational units who are looking for a common goal which is limited or may be different goals which are not compatible. When the characters are in conflict, they tend to use social power to his opponent and ties to control or influence the situation (Olsen, 1991: 100). He also added that there are some kinds of conflict
over it”. This can easily lead into conflict which including social power (Olsen, 1991: 101).
2. Verbal and action conflict. This conflict involving words to persuade,
“demand, discredit, threaten” other character. This conflict also involving physically, economically, legally, or socially in nature (Olsen, 1991: 101).
3. Pragmatic and ideological conflict. This conflict involves the “specific objection” which is considered as fundamental belief which is deeply held such as to win the election and to obtain any important place in governmental system (Olsen, 1991: 101).
4. Regulated and unregulated conflict. The regulated conflict is considered as conflict which is conducted with moral, norms or rules that is accepted by people. The unregulated conflict is different. It is the opposite of the regulated conflict. It is the conflict conducted without any norms or rules (Olsen, 1991: 101).
From these explanations, conflict can be understood as the clash or the different ways of thinking, act, or understanding something which is done by a certain character or group against he himself, other character (s), group, or against nature.
3. Postcolonial theory
and the attempt to govern the indigenous inhabitants of occupied lands” (Boehmer, 2005: 2). In this case, the colonizer came and took anything over to be their own. Ashis Nandy in his book, The Intimate Enemy, has the same idea that
there are two forms of colonialism which first is the „”physical conquest of territory and the second one is the colonization of the minds, selves and cultures” (Nandy, 11: 1983). He also added that the first mode was used in violent, force and greed. The second one is that the rationalist, modernist, liberals who had a notion to civilized the uncivilized.
Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin in their book, Key Concept of Post-Colonial Studies say that:
Post-colonialism (or often postcolonialism) deals with the effects of colonization on cultures and societies (Ashcroft, Griffiths, Tiffin, 1998: 186).
This means that postcolonialism is about colonization and its impact in the societies. This term was sometimes used by some historians after the Second World War era. Despite of the fact, from the late 1970s this term has been used by some literary critics in order to analyze some kind of problems of colonization and its impacts toward cultures. Before that, in 1960s, this field used to focus on the study of Commonwealth literature or the New Literature in English and then it was used to know about the political, linguistic, and cultural experiences from the societies that lived under the European control (Ashcroft, Griffiths, Tiffin, 1998: 186). Bill Ashcroft in his book, The Empire Writes Back as cited in Shrikant B.
its beginning of the colonization until present days. In this case, after the colonization time, the colonizer gives the indigenous people rights to gain their independence by “overcoming political and cultural imperialism” (Ashcroft Griffiths, Tiffin, 1989:2).
3.1. Theory of Identity
Before knowing what national identity is, it is better to know what identity
is. Identity is about „who we are‟ and the existence of ourselves. Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hubert, Kenneth Thompson in, Modernity An Introduction to Modern Societies mentioned three concepts of identity. It is “(a) the enlightenment subject, (b) the sociological subject, and (c) the post-modern subject” (Hall, Held, Hubert, Thompson, 1996: 597).
The enlightenment subject was based on the conception of human person as fully centred, unified individual, endowed with the capacities of reason,
consciousness, and action, whose „center‟ consisted of an inner core (Hall
et al, 1996: 597).
Here, the inner core he meant is still essentially the same ever since one has been born. He stated that this is very “individualist” concept as it looks only to the center of oneself (Hall et al, 1996: 597).
constituted within representation. The point is about being positioned or “in context”. Hall uses the thought of Derrida that identity needs the relation with
“Other”. This “constitutive other” then constructs identity. Concerning to cultural identities, Hall says that it is not something already existed or surpasses place and time. Rather, it comes from history. It is not a fixed origin of people where they can claim it as an absolute or final place to “Return”. Cultural identities are constructed through memory, myth, narratives, and fantasy. It is not an “essence” but “positioning” as it is a process of identification through culture and history. It is the name we give wherever we are in different ways of positioning by. The third concept of identity Hall mentions is the modern subject. For the post-modern subject, Hall mentioned that
Identity becomes a „moveable feast‟: formed and transformed
continuously in relations to the ways we represented or addressed in the cultural systems which is surround us (Hall et al, 1996: 598).
In this case, the subject gets different identities at different times. It is not the biological but historical matters. We are pulled to different directions as there are many different or contradictory identities. This brings us to the shifting. “We are confronted by a bewildering, fleeting multiplicity, of possible identities” (Hall et al, 1996: 598).
3.2. Theory of National Identity
…a named human population sharing an historic territory, common myths
and historical memories, a mass, public culture, a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members (Smith, 1991: 14).
He also says that the nation is actually bound with many kinds of identity which its own identity can be combined with; class, religious, ethnic, identity and also other ideology. National identity is “fundamentally dimensional” which means that it cannot be reduced into one single element (Smith, 1991: 14). Smith gave some ideas about fundamental features of a national identity.
1. A historic territory or homeland
2. Common myths and historical memories 3. A common, mass public culture
4. Common legal rights and duties for all members
5. A common economy with territorial mobility for members (Smith, 1991: 14).
From these fundamental features, Smith wanted to say that national identity contains the history of homeland, the origin place of a nation. It also contains the myths and memories of a nation, culture and tradition in the society, the rights and role of each member of the nation and the territorial mobility of economy for the members of the nation (Smith, 1991:14).
Hall as cited in in Wodak, de Cillia, Reisigl and Liebhart‟s The Discursive Construction of National Identity mentions five aspects of national identity. First
is the “narrative of the nation” which is presented in national narratives, literature, media, and in “everyday culture” which then connects stories, historical past. “national symbol and national rituals” conceived “shared experiences and destructive defeats”. In this case, the national narratives, literature, media, and
“everyday culture” play an important role to make people remember their past.
The second aspect is the “emphasis on origins, continuity, tradition, and
timelessness”. Here, national identity, as the original identity which is present in
the nature of things. This aspect wants an image of a national character which is
“unbroken and uniform being”. In this case, it wants to show the unbroken and unchanging character of a nation. Hall mentions the third aspect which is
“invention of tradition”. He says that the “invented traditions” make community
from disorder. In this case, the invention of tradition will help the people to remember the moral values and norms of behaviors through repetition that connect people with the historical past. The fourth aspect is the “myth of origin” which belongs to the great significance of inventing a national culture. It is because in “mythical” space, a nation can still exist even though, because of time, it is not exist in the reality any longer. It puts together the origin of the nation, the people and their national character in the “mythic time”. Myth also takes role in adversative narration in order to be used as a way of founding a new nation. The
supportive aspect of a national identity (Wodak, de Cillia, Reisigl, Liebhart, 1999: 24).
Hall, Held, Hubert, and Thompson argue that the national identities which are constructed by the national cultures are placed “ambiguously” between its
“past” and “future” (Hall et al, 1996: 615). The national cultures here sometimes
want to go back to the historical past when the nation “was great” to “restore” it.
This is “the regressive, anachronistic element” the national cultural story has which wants to put the people within two places at once (Hall et al, 1996: 615). However, behind that returning to the past, there is a concealed desire to endure
the people to get rid of the “others” who “threaten” their identity (Hall et al, 1996:
615).
For Hall, globalization can give impacts to national identity. He mentions three consequences of globalization on cultural identities. The first one is that national identities are being “eroded”. The mix of culture or cultural homogenization and the “global post-modern” is the cause of this problem. The second one is that the resistance to globalization strengthens the national and particularistic identities. And the last one is that national identities are declining. On the other hand, new identities of hybridity are rising (Hall et al, 1996: 619).
3.3. Theory of Hybridity
rose.” (Young, 2005: 24). Young uses Geranium rose as an example to explain that hybridity mixes two things that vanish the clear cross-cut of them. Bhabha himself in his book, The Location of Culture said that the third space is the precondition of cultural difference; the social contradiction and antagonism (Bhabha 1994: 34). This idea of the third space was then explained as the “in between” of a culture. Here is the space where the cultural meaning can be found. This shows that there is no original meaning or cultural “purity” here (Bhabha, 1994: 38). Elleke Boehmer in his book, Colonial and Postcolonial Literature 2nd Edition also said that to get to the process of hybridity needs the process of
mimicry to be the same as the new identity they live by (Boehmer, 2005: 16). C. Review of Related Backgrounds
Review on the History of Jewish Society
1. The Jews under Babylonian Rule
In 587 BC the Davidic kingdom felt under the Babylonian rule. The Babylonians conquered Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylonia, took many Jerusalem people to Babylonia. This event was known as the “exile”.
Harper, in his journal, “The Jews in Babylon” says that the Babylonian exile is the
most pathetic experience the Jews ever had (Harper, 1899:104). Lester L. Grabbe, in Introduction to Second Temple Judaism, also says that those who were deported were the royal family, the wealthy people, those who have special status and had special professional skills in the society (Grabbe, 2010: 2). Barton added that Babylonian Empire made two deportations. The first was in 598 and the second was in 586 including the priests (Barton, 1911: 369).
a. The Jews in Captivity
was not the matter of outside material. Rather, it was a matter of “inward attitude”. Hence, Jeremiah established a “new theology” (Barton, 1911: 370). This new concepts, according to Harper, conceived the ideas that the exile was
Jehovah‟s plan which meant that it happened to them because of their disobedience to His will. Babylonia and her gods were Jehovah‟s instruments in order to punish Israelites and testify their faith. This idea then consequently brought a meaning that Jehovah, Jewish national God, was very great God that he could even make a great nation like Babylonia and her gods to be his instruments who followed all what he wanted (Harper, 1899: 109). The “left behind” one, according to Latuvus, began to start a new society and make new army. Then, they dared rebel against Babylonian army though failed and caused more destruction, even to their temple (Sugirtharajah, 2006: 188).
Both of these struggles of people showed their strong conviction of being one nation and defended their religion and temple as their identity which united them. The destruction of the temple at first burdened them so much. However, they still kept their faith and with the permission of Darius the King, later in the time of Persian rule, they could build it again.
2. The Jews under Persian Rule
the Jews (Smallwood, 1976: 1). The Jews in captivity were taken back to their homeland and rebuilt the temple of Salomon which was first destroyed. According to Josephus, Cyrus was prophesied to be the king of the Jews and that by his grateful, the Jews could build the temple again (Josephus, 2006: L.11, C.1).
Some scholars say that this period was the most fertile period of Jewish literature. Torah was composed during this era but without any understanding of where and by whom it was spread. During this era also, most of the Jewish literature and tradition were edited by the power of the empire. In the bible, the books that mostly described this era were Ezra and Nehemiah (Grabbe, 2010: 3). In this era, Torah was embedded to the imperial authorization.
3. The Jews under Greek Rule
a. Hellenization of the Jews
Greek Empire, through the rule of Alexander the Great, gave much influence on the Jews. It was the Hellenism. Hellenism was the impact of Alexander‟s conquest.
This new culture – a blend of (1) Greek education and emphasis on the arts with (2) elements from the oriental cultures which Alexander conquered (Palmer, 2002: 1).
Hellenistic, it did not mean to be transformed into Greek. Rather, it was to be something new; between Near Eastern and Greek, as it was a “synthetic” process of combining two different cultures. William Cerighton Graham in his journal,
“The Jewish World in which Jesus Lived”, mentioned that at that time of Greek rule, the Jews reflected the spirit of Hellenism in some aspects of their life. Love of pleasure, luxury, and the material refinements of life was the Hellenistic spirit expressed by the Jews from the taste of foods, house furnishing, and clothes. In this case, they imposed Greek customs. Greek money was also circulated (Graham 1928: 5). It was important also to know that the Old Testament, Torah was also translated and written in Greek (Gilbert, 1909: 524). This was the way the empire got opportunity to control the ideology of the society. The influence of Greek Empire through Hellenism was really internalized by the Jews. As this process kept going on during the time, the Jews did not consider the process as
“borrowing” one‟s culture but they considered it as “thoroughly assimilating”. It is not only in the time of Persian rule that Torah was used as the imperial tool. In this era, at Ptolemaic times, Torah was also used as the media of imperialism. In this era, in about the middle of third century B.C.E., Torah or Pentateuch was translated into Greek for the benefit of the Alexandrian (Grabbe, 2010:40).
b. Maccabean Revolt
and celebration of religious festivals and the teaching of Torah (Palmer, 2002: 3). He forced the Jews to worship Zeus, God of the Greek. He desecrated the temple by sacrifice a swine on the altar. He even forced the priest in local areas to sacrifice swine to Zeus and if they rejected it, their position as priests were immediately replaced by anyone who were ready to do it. Some of the Jews agreed with this as it brought them to the new paradigm of the Jews. However, some of them did not. It was Mattathias, a local priest in Modein who rejected it. He and his five sons then rebelled. Many of the Jews then joined them and most of them were the peasants. It was first started by Judas, first son of Mattathias. Judas was called “Maccabeus” or “the hammer” as their braveness and struggles to fight the well trained and well equipped troops (Palmer, 2002: 4). They attacked Selucid troops and in 164 BCE, the temple was cleansed again. In 142, under the control of Simon, the fifth son of Mattathias, the Greek was defeated and Jews finally got its independence. All these struggles then were called as the
“Maccabean Revolt” (Palmer, 2002: 4).
4. The Jews under Roman Rule
changed Palestine‟s economic production system into the system of the Empire (Houtart, 1976: 12). The dominion of Roman Empire began from the economic field where the Roman Empire tried to raise the tax. This kind of system made the urban workers and the lower middle class as this was a double exploitation to them.
In political point of view, there was a hierarchy that involving the Palestinian too. It is stated that
Around the Temple was to be found the priestly community which had the responsibility of organizing worship and exercising the policing function through the Levites. It was a priest who held the office of the treasurer. Then followed a series of officials, priests, Levites and laymen. In analyzing the political system, a stratification of the groups becomes relevant. The Sadducees constituted the Jewish aristocracy and they were linked to the Roman power through their economic interests. The Pharisees were members of the urban lower middle class: arti-sans, small traders and scribes, who wielded little political power although they were represented in the Sanhedrin ( Houtart, 1976: 19 ).
according to the Jewish people, was directly given to Moses by God in Mount Sinai
(http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Written_Law.html). Around 200 BC, apocalyptic literature entered there into the religious ideology. It came from Persian with the characteristic of its ability to “forge” a link between the natural and historical orders and develop the ideas of individual salvation as well as the “Last Judgment”, “resurrection”, and “re-establishment” of the whole order of creation.
In that time, there were some group of societies such as Saduccess and Pharisees. They were actually the priestly community which had power to control the society and organizing worship. Though they both were Judaism, they had different interpretation of Torah.
The Sadducees, who represented the most conservative group, relied on the torah, the original law of Israel and were opposed to the eschatological and apocalyptical tendencies as well as to the idea of the resurrection of the dead. On the other hand, the Pharisees formed the very core of the eschatological and apocalyptical philosophies. Some of them developed a certain pessimistic idea of Man, insisting on the importance of the other world which had to be won by a strict legalistic observance. Their ideology was typical not only of an urban class which centred its religious conviction on individual salvation, but also of a class which found itself in a stage of transition to a point lower down the social ladder, and which consequently would have a propensity to stress the eschatological aspects (Houtart, 1976: 21).
power to judge the crime or those who violate the social rule inhabiting at that time.
The Jews in Palestine had experienced many social and cultural contacts with other society and cultures. This of course brought impacts in some of aspects such as economic, politics and religion or ideology. However, the temple and synagogues had a very important role in keeping the nationalism of the Jews (Graham, 1928:571). He also added that the temple and synagogues were the institutions made in order to solve the problems among society. The temple was organized by the Sadducees and the synagogues were organized by the Pharisees. Both of these institutions then showed the characteristics of their organizers (Graham, 1928: 573-572).
D. Theoretical Framework
all in sequence of time. The related studies also give contribution to the related background of this research as they also share some important historical data. The related studies in this research are used as the starting point from where the writer begins to develop the postcolonial biblical study.
There are also some related theories used in this research to answer the research questions. As this research discusses about a struggle of defending national identity of a nation which lived in the context of imperialism, the theory used here is Postcolonial theory. Avoiding any jumping observation to the main problem, the writer uses two intrinsic theories as the beginning to make this research fully understandable. The first intrinsic theory is the theory of characterization. This theory gives contribution in giving the writer understanding of how to know the characteristic or quality of a character, which in this research is Jesus, using some methods. This theory, used in the first research question, helps the writer to determine the characteristics of Jesus which show his reinterpretations of Torah.
The second intrinsic theory is the theory of conflict. This theory gives contribution in giving the writer understanding of what makes conflict, how the different ideas can lead to clash. This theory, used in the second research question, helps the writer to know how Jesus criticism of Torah can trigger a clash with the Jews, especially the Jewish authorities.
experienced by the Jewish people. There are three specific parts of this theory related to the problem in this research. First part is the theory of identity. This theory gives contribution in giving understanding of the Jewish identity; who they are and how they are related to others. This theory explains how the Jewish people identify and enunciate their selves as they are in the hybrid situation,
contaminated by the colonizer‟s culture. The theory of national identity is also
used here. This theory gives contribution in giving understanding of what makes a national identity, how it emerges and why it is so important for the Jewish people. The last theory is the theory of hybridity. This theory gives contribution in giving understanding of the mix of culture. This theory explains how the colonizer‟s culture can be internalized by the colonized people. This theory is used to see the
status quo of the Jewish people who in fact have contaminated by the colonizer‟s
culture and ideology.
45
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study
Object of this study is four Gospels in a bible, the Good News Translation version. This Bible is a Catholic edition which was published by American Bible Society in New York. This bible was first published in 1979 but revised in 1992. The one that is used in this research is the revised one. This book presents both Old Testament and New Testament with the addition of Deuterocanonicals/ Apocrypha. Both testaments conceive the imperial domination over the people.
This bible generally shares information about the civilization of the Jews in antiquity. It tells how the Jewish people make their nations and live under the control of other nations. The Old Testament mostly shares how Jewish people, under imperial rule, begin and establish their new life in the “promised land” after the exodus from Egypt. This part also contains the rules and laws of Judaism, the
Jews’ religion. While the New Testament mostly shares the presence of a Jew
named Jesus, the so-called Messiah, who conflicts with the other Jews concerning national identity. This part also tells the rise of early Christianity.
B. Approach of the Study
Literary and Cultural Theory second edition said that postcolonial criticism deals
with the issues of cultural difference in literary texts (Barry, 2002: 198). He also mentioned some ways postcolonial critics do to apply the theory in a literary text. Some of the ways that are used in this research are first that postcolonial critics questioning the cultural difference and diversity (Barry, 2002: 199). In this case, as the Jews was the ex-colonized nation and at the time they still lived under Roman rule, this means that they lived in a postcolonial context and as the consequence, there must be cultural difference and diversity that the writer analyze. He also added that postcolonial critics celebrating hybridity and “cultural polyvalency” which means to show where individual belongs to more than one culture (Barry, 2002: 199). In this case, as the consequence of being colonized, there was a result of double identity (hybridity) which the writer also found in the object of the study.
As this research uses postcolonial approach, the writer then applies those ways in analyzing the problems related to postcolonialism. This approach is used because the writer found that the problems in the object of the study have the same idea with the problems talked in this approach.
C. Method of the Study
This research is a library research. The writer uses some printed sources as the guideline without going to the field and collecting some data. The primary source of this research is a Good News Translation bible. The writer also uses some secondary sources such as books, journals and articles. Some of the most important sources of this research are the books; Postcolonial Biblical Reader by R.S. Sugirtharajah, Modernity An Introduction to Modern Societies by Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hubert, and Kenneth Thompson, National Identity by Anthony D. Smith, ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS by Flavius Josephus, THE JEWS UNDER ROMAN RULE. From Pompey to Diocletian by Mary E. Smallwood,
JESUS AND THE POLITICS OF HIS DAY by Ernest Bammel and C.F.D. Moule,
JOHN and EMPIRE by Warren Carter, and some journals; “Hellenization of the Jews between 334 B. C. and 70 A. D” by George Holley Gilbert, “The Jewish World in which Jesus Lived” by William Creighton Graham, and some articles;
“Words of Delight: Bible as Literature” by Leland Ryken, and “The Jewish
There were basically two steps of doing the analysis. The first step was to arrange some related sources, the related theories which were relevant to be used. In this step, the writer had to understand which theory to be used first based on the order of research questions. The first research question observed what Jesus reinterpretations of Torah is. In this section, the theory of characterization which
shows someone’s way of thinking was used. The second research question
observed how those reinterpretations bring conflict in the society. In this section, the theory of conflict was used. The last research question observed hoe the conflict incite the crisis of national identity. In this section, the theory of Postcolonial is used. As the third research questions is the main idea or focus of the study, it elaborated some important points. In this question, first, the writer elaborated the identity of the Jewish people. In this section, the theory of Hybridity and the theory of Identity were used. Second, the writer elaborates how the Jews recognize their national identity and how they live in the imperial reality with that recognition. In this section, the writer used the theory of national identity.
