VolumeI OrganizationalBehavior TheSAGEHandbookof

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The SAGE Handbook of

Organizational Behavior

Volume I

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The SAGE Handbook of

Organizational Behavior

Volume I Micro Approaches

Edited by

Julian Barling and Cary L. Cooper

Los Angeles• London • New Delhi • Singapore

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First published 2008

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency.

Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.

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Julian Barling

I would like to thank Prof. Fred Massarik, formerly of UCLA and Prof. Peter Robinson, formerly of the University of Bristol, who both supported and mentored me in earlier stages of my career, and remain good friends and colleagues.

Cary Cooper

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About the Editors

Julian Barling Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and Queen’s Research Chair, is Professor of Organizational Behavior and Psychology, and Associate Dean (PhD, MSc and Research) in the Queen’s School of Business. Dr Barling is the author/editor of several books on topics such as work and family, unions, young workers, work safety, and co-editor of the Handbook of Work Stress, and the Handbook of Workplace Violence. He is the author/editor of well over 125 research articles and book chapters, and was editor of the American Psychological Association’s Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (2000–2005). In 2001, Dr Barling received the National Post’s ‘Leaders in Business Education’ award; in 2008, he was elected as a Fellow of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. His current research focuses on the nature of transformational leadership and unethical leadership, and on employees’

psychological and physical well-being.

Cary L. Cooper is Distinguished Professor of Organizational Psychology and Health at Lancaster University Management School and Pro Vice Chancellor of Lancaster University.

He is the Founding President of the British Academy of Management, Founding Editor of the Journal of Organizational Behavior, Chair of The Sunningdale Institute (a UK government think tank on management/organizational issues), President of the British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy, and author of numerous scholarly articles and books. He has been awarded four honorary doctorates from various universities, and in 2006 was given an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians. In 2001, he was awarded the Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire by the Queen for his contribution to organizational health.

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About the Contributors

Natalie J. Allen is a Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario in London, Canada and Director of The TeamWork Lab at Western. Her research interests include the composition and processes within teams, methodological issues in team research, and the psychology of employee commitment. She is Associate Editor of the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Past Chair of the Canadian Society of Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Dr Allen’s work appears in numerous academic and practitioner journals and she is the co-author, with John Meyer, of Commitment in the Workplace:

Theory, Research and Application (Sage, 1997).

Terry A. Beehr is a Professor in the PhD Program Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology at Central Michigan University. He earned his PhD in Organizational Psychology from The University of Michigan in 1974 and previously was an Assistant Professor of psychology at Illinois State University. He has been on the editorial boards of several journals in I/O psychology and management and is currently an Associate Editor for the Journal of Organizational Behavior.

He has published research on several topics, including retirement, occupational stress, leadership, and careers.

Misty M. Bennett is a Doctoral Candidate in the Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology program at Central Michigan University. She has co-authored another book chapter in the area of retirement, and has additional research in progress in the areas of work-family conflict, occupational stress, and social support. She has been an instructor at CMU for the past three years and gives workshops on leadership and occupational stress for both managers as well as college students.

Jennifer L. Berdahl is an Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at the University of Toronto. She received her PhD from the University of Illinois. Her research investigates the social psychology of power in work groups and organizations. She has studied the emergence of status hierarchies in groups, the role of harassment and undermining in maintaining social status hierarchies in organizations, and the effects of social power on individual cognition, emotion, and behavior in groups. Her work has appeared in such journals as Academy of Management Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.

Matt Bloom is an Associate Professor in the Management Department at the Mendoza College of Business, University of Notre Dame. His research interests center around understanding motivation in the workplace, employee engagement, and human well-being. Matt is especially interested in understanding the role that affect plays in intrinsic motivation and well-being at work. He teaches courses on innovation and high-performance organizations to undergraduates, MBAs, and executives. Matt received his PhD from Cornell University.

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Wendy R. Boswell is an Associate Professor and Mays Research Fellow in the Mays Business School, Texas A&M University. She is also the Director of the Center for Human Resource Management. Her research focuses on employee attraction and retention, workplace conflict, and work stress. Dr Boswell’s work has appeared in such journals as Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Review, Personnel Psychology, Human Resource Management, and Journal of Management. She serves on the editorial boards of Journal of Applied Psychology and Personnel Psychology, and is an Associate Editor for the Journal of Management.

Robyn L. Brouer is an Assistant Professor at Hofstra University. She received her PhD in Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management from Florida State University.

Brouer has research interests in leadership, the multi-dimensions of person-environment fit, social influence processes including impression management and politics, leader-member exchange, and work stress. Her work has been published in such journals as the Journal of Management, Leadership Quarterly, and Human Resource Management Review.

Adam Butler is Professor of Psychology and Director of the graduate program in Industrial- Organizational Psychology at the University of Northern Iowa. He conducts research on issues related to work-family balance, family-friendly employment practices, and college student employment. His research has appeared in Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. He holds a PhD in Industrial-Organizational Psychology from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Gerard A. Callanan is Professor in the Management Department at West Chester University.

He received a PhD in Organizational Behavior from Drexel University. He was formerly a Vice President with the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia. A member of the Academy of Management and the American Psychological Association, his research has appeared in a number of scholarly publications. In 2000, Dr Callanan co-authored (with J. H. Greenhaus &

V. M. Godshalk) the third edition of the textbook Career Management, published by Thomson- Southwestern. He is co-editor (with Jeffrey H. Greenhaus) of the Encyclopedia of Career Development, published by Sage in 2006.

Anthony Carroll is a PhD Candidate at the Queen’s School of Business at Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario. He conducts research on union commitment and participation, leadership and safety in the workplace. His research has appeared in the Journal of Applied Psychology, and Journal of Business and Psychology. His current interests include examining the structure and nature of safety behaviors within organizations and the predictors and consequences of such behaviors.

Jennifer Carson is completing her PhD in Organizational Behavior at the London Business School (www.london.edu). She received both her Bachelor of Commerce and MSc in Organizational Behavior from Queen’s University, in Canada. She has also worked as an Associate for the international executive search firm, Heidrick & Struggles (www.heidrick.com).

Jennifer’s past research has included publications on groups, health and romantic relationships in the workplace.

Susan Cartwright is Professor of Organizational Psychology in the Manchester Business School at The University of Manchester, is a Chartered Psychologist and Fellow of the British Psychological Society. Susan is currently the President of the British Academy of Management

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and a Fellow of the British Academy of Management. She is a past Editor of the Leadership and Organization Development Journal and currently Associate Editor of the British Journal of Management. Susan has authored 13 books, over 40 scholarly articles and 30 book chapters.

Her main research interests are occupational stress and well being, human aspects of mergers and acquisitions and emotional intelligence.

Amy Christie is an Assistant Professor in the School of Business and Economics at Wilfrid Laurier University in Waterloo, Ontario. Her research interests surround issues of status, power, and leadership in organizations. One stream of her research has centered on abuses of power and unethical leadership, while another has explored status structures and interpersonal processes in small groups.

Jason A. Colquitt is a Professor in the Management department at the University of Florida. He received his PhD from Michigan State University. His research interests include organizational justice, trust, and personality. He has published more than 20 articles on these and other topics in a number of journals. He is currently serving as an Associate Editor for Academy of Management Journal and is a recipient of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology’s Distinguished Early Career Contributions Award and the Cummings Scholar Award for early to mid-career achievement, sponsored by the Organizational Behavior division of the Academy of Management.

Catherine E. Connelly is an Assistant Professor of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management at the DeGroote School of Business at McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada. She earned her MSc and PhD degrees in Management at Queen’s University in Kingston, Canada. Her research has appeared in several journals, including Human Resource Management Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Management Information Systems, and Journal of Vocational Behavior.

Lilia M. Cortina is Associate Professor of Psychology and Women’s Studies at the University of Michigan. She received her PhD from the University of Illinois. Her research addresses sexual harassment, incivility, and gender in organizations, with a particular focus on how victimization undermines employee well-being. Her work has appeared in a variety of journals, including Academy of Management Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Journal of Abnormal Psychology. She has served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, and Psychology of Women Quarterly.

Jacqueline A-M. Coyle-Shapiro is a Professor in Organizational Behavior in the Department of Management at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), where she received her PhD in 1996. Her research interests include employment relationships, psychological contracts, perceived organizational support, organizational justice, organizational citizenship behavior, and communal relationships. She is Senior Editor at the Journal of Organizational Behavior and is on several editorial review boards. Her work has been published in outlets including the Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior, and Journal of Management Studies.

Marco S. DiRenzo is a PhD student in the Department of Management at Drexel University’s LeBow College of Business. He is currently conducting research on job-level differences in work-family conflict, a boundaryless career perspective on organizational turnover, generational

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differences in conceptualizations of career success, and cognitive biases in entrepreneurial decision making and career orientations. His PhD dissertation will examine the role of a protean career orientation in employees’ career management processes.

Jane E. Dutton is the Robert L. Kahn Distinguished University Professor of Business Administration and Psychology at the University of Michigan. She is a cofounder of the Center for Positive Organizational Scholarship (http://www.bus.umich.edu/Positive). Her current research focuses on positive identity processes, compassion and organizations, and high quality connections. She has edited a special issue in the Journal of Positive Psychology on positive organizing (forthcoming in 2008). Jane and Belle Ragins edited Exploring Positive Relationships at Work, published by Lawrence Erlbaum in 2007.

P. Christopher Earley is the Auran J. Fox Chair in Business and the Dean of the University of Connecticut School of Business and former Dean of National University of Singapore Business School. His interests include cross-cultural and international aspects of organizations, including the dynamics of multinational teams and motivation. Recent publications include Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions Across Cultures (with Ang Soon), Multinational Work Teams: A New Perspective (with Cristina Gibson), The Transplanted Executive: Managing in Different Cultures (with Miriam Erez), and ‘Creating Hybrid Team Cultures: An Empirical Test of International Team Functioning’ (with E. Mosakowski, in Academy of Management Journal).

Gerald R. Ferris is the Francis Eppes Professor of Management and Professor of Psychology at Florida State University. He received a PhD in Business Administration from the University of Illinois (Urbana-Champaign). He has research interests in social influence and effectiveness processes in organizations, and reputation in organizations, and has published articles in the Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Organizational Dynamics, Personnel Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, and Academy of Management Review. He served as Editor of the annual research series, Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management from its inception in 1983 until 2003.

Lori Francis received a PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of Guelph and is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at Saint Mary’s University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Dr Francis has broad research interests in organizational psychology including occupational health and safety, industrial relations, and workplace fairness. She is a member of Saint Mary’s University’s CN Center for Occupational Health and Safety.

Michael R. Frone is a Senior Scientist at the Research Institute on Addictions, State University of New York at Buffalo. He has published extensively in the areas of organizational behavior and occupational health. He coedited The Psychology of Workplace Safety and the Handbook of Work Stress. He was an Associate Editor for the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and has served on several editorial boards. His research has received federal funding totaling more than $7.5 million. He is currently the principal investigator on the National Survey of Workplace Health and Safety and the National Survey of Work Stress and Health.

Daniel G. Gallagher is the CSX Corporation Professor of Management at James Madison University, USA. He earned his MA and PhD degrees at the Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations at the University of Illinois with concentrations in the areas of industrial psychology and economics. He has also been a member of the faculty at the University of Iowa, and Queen’s University, Canada. Professor Gallagher is currently an Associate Editor for Human

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Relations (Tavistock Institute) and a member of the editorial board of Industrial Relations (Berkeley).

Heidi K. Gardner is an Assistant Professor of Organizational Behavior at Harvard Business School. One line of her research focuses on team-level issues such as status, expertise utilization, and multi-national perspectives; another stream of research focuses on knowledge- based innovation in professional service firms. She has published articles in the Academy of Management Journal and Journal of Organizational Behavior, as well as several book chapters.

She has lived in the UK, South Africa, Germany, France and Japan. Formerly a management consultant, Heidi also worked with multinational clients in 16 nations on four continents. She holds a PhD from London Business School.

Mary Ann Glynn is a Professor of Organization Studies and, by courtesy, Professor of Sociology at Boston College. She is the Inaugural Fellow and Research Director for the Winston Center for Leadership and Ethics (http://www.bc.edu/schools/csom/leadership). Her current research focuses on organizational identity, institutionalization processes, and the positive dynamics of organizing and leadership.

Alicia A. Grandey is an Associate Professor and Chair of Industrial-Organizational Psychology at Penn State University. She earned her PhD at Colorado State University in 1999. Her research focuses on emotional labor, customer service and work-family, and is published in journals such as Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. Her research has also been discussed in Harvard Business Review, Ms. Magazine, and National Public Radio.

Jeffrey H. Greenhaus is a Professor and William A. Mackie Chair in the Department of Management at Drexel University’s LeBow College of Business. His research, which focuses on work-family relationships and career dynamics, has been published in many of the field’s leading journals. In addition, Jeff is coauthor or coeditor of Career Management, now in its third edition, Work and Family – Allies or Enemies, Integrating Work and Family: Challenges and Choices for a Changing World, and the Encyclopedia of Career Development. He is currently studying decision-making and gender processes at the work-family interface and the meaning of work-family balance.

Mark Griffin is a Professor of Work Psychology in the Institute of Work Psychology at the University of Sheffield. He received his PhD in Industrial/Organizational psychology from The Pennsylvania State University and has published his research in journals such as Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, and Personnel Psychology. He has managed large-scale organizational studies in areas such as leadership, safety, work performance, organizational climate, and work stress. His research seeks to understand the multilevel relationship between performance and well-being for individuals, teams, and organizations.

Joseph G. Grzywacz is Associate Professor of Family and Community Medicine at Wake Forest University School of Medicine. He earned a PhD in Child and Family Studies from the University of Wisconsin and completed an National Institute of Mental Health Post-Doctoral Fellowship in the Social Ecology of Health from the University of California, Irvine. He has published extensively in the area of work, family, and health and has published his research in journals such as Journal of Marriage and Family, Social Science and Medicine, Journal of Applied Psychology, and the Journal of Health and Social Behavior. His research is supported by

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the National Institutes of Health and the Alfred P. Sloan foundation and is consistently recognized as among the ‘best of the best’ research in work and family.

Andrew T. Hinrichs is a doctoral student in human resources and organizational behavior at the Mays Business School, Texas A&M University. His research interests center around individual differences, workplace attitudes, work-family conflict, stress, and leadership. He has presented his research at both the Academy of Management and the Southwest Academy of Management.

He obtained his MBA from University of New Mexico and his BA in business/economics from Wheaton College.

Ying Hong is a Doctoral Candidate in Human Resource Management in the School of Management and Labor Relations at Rutgers University, USA. Her research interests include macro perspectives such as strategic human resource management (HRM) and knowledge management; a combination of multi-level perspectives such as social capital and customer service linkage research; and micro perspectives such as leadership. Her dissertation examines the strategic capability of service organizations in differentiating HRM to enhance customer outcomes. She obtained her MS degree in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from Saint Mary’s University, Canada, and BA degrees from Zhejiang University, China.

Colette Hoption is a Doctoral Candidate in Management at Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario, specializing in Organizational Behavior. Prior to her doctoral studies, she completed a Master of Science in Management, and undergraduate degrees in Psychology and French studies. Colette’s primary research interests are in the area of leadership, and in particular examining leadership with a relational and dynamic lens. Her research has been presented at conferences such as Association for Psychological Science and the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Colette’s work has also been published in the Journal of Applied Psychology.

Charlice Hurst is a PhD Student in the Department of Management at the University of Florida.

She holds a BA from Harvard University with a dual concentration in social and biological anthropology and an International MBA from the University of South Carolina Moore School of Business. Charlice’s current research interests are the influence of core self-evaluations and gender on interpersonal relationships at work, the role of interpersonal relationships in mood and well-being, and work-family issues among low-wage earners.

Remus Ilies received his Doctorate from the University of Florida and earned a Master in Business Administration degree from Iowa State University. He conducts research on topics such as employee satisfaction, affect, work-family balance, health and well-being, leadership and group processes, and motivation and self-regulation. His research has been published in scholarly journals such as Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology and Journal of Organizational Behavior, and has received multiple research awards. Dr Ilies currently serves on the editorial boards of Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, and Psihologia Resurselor Umane.

Roderick D. Iverson is a Professor of Human Resource Management in the Faculty of Business Administration, Simon Fraser University. He received his PhD in Industrial Sociology from the University of Iowa. His main research interests include high-performance work systems, workplace safety, voluntary and involuntary (downsizing) turnover, employee absenteeism, psychological contracts, organizational union and dual commitment, and union joining

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and leaving. He currently serves on the editorial boards of Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, Human Relations, Human Resource Management Review, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, and the International Journal of Selection and Assessment.

Susan E. Jackson is a Professor of Human Resource Management in the School of Management and Labor Relations at Rutgers University, USA, and Research Fellow at GSBA-Zürich. Her research interests include knowledge-based competition, managing team effectiveness, and workforce diversity. She has published numerous articles and books on these and related topics, including Managing Knowledge for Sustained Competitive Advantage: Designing Strategies for Effective Human Resource Management (with Michael Hitt and Angelo DeNisi).

She is a Fellow and active member of the Academy of Management, British Academy of Management, American Psychological Association and Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

Timothy Jackson is a PhD Student in Industrial/Organizational Psychology at The University of Western Ontario. His research examines the link between leadership behavior and employee commitment. He has presented his work at meetings of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the Gallup Leadership Institute, and the Canadian Psychological Association. He has also consulted with numerous organizations on leadership, selection, and assessment issues, including Lafarge Group, Sunopta Inc., Bayer Healthcare, Ontario Power Generation, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Salus Global Corporation, and the City of York Region.

Karen A. Jehn is a Professor of Social and Organizational Psychology at Leiden University, The Netherlands. Her research examines intragroup conflict, group composition, and lying in organizations. Professor Jehn has authored numerous publications in these areas, including articles in the Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and the Journal of Business Ethics. She has served as a Director of the Solomon Asch Center for the Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Sloan Foundation’s Diversity Research Network. Her most recent area of interest is in asymmetric perceptions within workgroups.

Steve M. Jex is currently an Associate Professor of Industrial/Organizational Psychology at Bowling Green State University. Dr Jex received his PhD in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from the University of South Florida and has spent most of his post-doctoral career conducting research on occupational stress. His also serves on three editorial boards, and was recently Associate Editor of Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology.

In addition to his research and editorial activities, Dr Jex is the author of two books, Stress and Job Performance: Theory, Research, and Implications for Managerial Practice and Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach.

Gary Johns is a Professor of Management and the Concordia University Research Chair in Management in the John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, Montreal.

He has research interests in absenteeism from work, presenteeism, personality, job design, self-serving behavior, research methodology, and the impact of context on organizational behavior. His scholarship has been published in Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Personnel Psychology, Journal of Management, Research in Organizational Behavior, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Human Relations, and Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology.

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Sophia Soyoung Jeong is a Management Doctoral Student in the Moore School of Business at the University of South Carolina. Her current research interests include ethical judgment and decision making, prosocial behavior, trust, and cross-cultural organizational behavior.

Timothy A. Judge is the Matherly-McKethan Eminent Scholar, Department of Management, Warrington College of Business, University of Florida. He received his PhD from the University of Illinois (Urbana-Champaign). Judge’s previous academic appointments include Stanley Howe Professor of Leadership at the Tippie College of Business, University of Iowa, and associate and assistant professor at the School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University. Prior to graduate school, he was a manager with Kohl’s Department Stores in Milwaukee, WI, Janesville, WI, and Rockford, IL. Judge’s research interests include personality, leadership, job attitudes, and, most recently, moods and emotions.

E. Kevin Kelloway PhD is a Professor of Management and Psychology at Saint Mary’s University and Senior Research Fellow/Director of the CN Center for Occupational Health and Safety. His research interests include occupational health psychology, leadership, and unionization.

M. Audrey Korsgaard received a PhD from New York University and is currently a Professor of Management and Organizational Behavior at the University of South Carolina. Her research addresses the topics of prosocial orientation, trust and organizational justice and their relationship to interpersonal and intragroup cooperation. She has studied these issues in a variety of work settings, including supervisor-subordinate relationships, investor-entrepreneur relations, work teams, and joint ventures.

Mary Dana Laird is an Assistant Professor at the University of Tulsa. She received a PhD in Management from Florida State University. Her research interests include organizational politics, political skill, and stress, but most of her current work focuses on personal reputation.

Her research has been published in the Human Resource Management Review, the Journal of Applied Social Psychology, and the Journal of Management. In addition, she has contributed book chapters to the Handbook of Organizational Behavior, Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, the Handbook of Organizational Politics, and Stress and Quality of Working Life: Current Perspective in Occupational Health.

Gary Latham is the Secretary of State Professor of Organizational Effectiveness in the Joseph L. Rotman School of Business, University of Toronto. He is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, the American Psychological Association, the Society of Industrial-Organizational Psychology, the Canadian Psychological Association, the Academy of Management, and the Royal Society of Canada. He is the recipient of both the Distinguished Scientific and the Professional Contribution Awards from SIOP, the Scholar/Practitioner Award from the AOM, and the Career Achievement Awards from the HR and OB Divisions of the AOM. He is a Past President of CPA and the current President of SIOP.

Beth Livingston is a doctoral student at the University of Florida. Previously, she received her Master’s in Business Administration from the University of Kentucky. Her research interests are in the areas of gender, work-family, and workplace moods and emotions. Her dissertation concerns the relationships among gender, gender roles, and negotiation of work-family roles.

Edwin A. Locke is Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership Emeritus at the R.H. Smith School of Business, University of Maryland. He is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological

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Science, the American Psychological Association and the Academy of Management. He received the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award (Society for I/O Psychology), the Career Achievement Award from the Academy of Management (OB Division), and the J. M. Cattell Award (APS). He, with Gary Latham, developed Goal Setting Theory, ranked No. 1 in importance among 73 management theories. He is internationally known for his research on motivation, job satisfaction, leadership, and other topics.

Sean Lux is a Visiting Instructor at the University of South Florida Center for Entrepreneurship.

He received his PhD in Management from Florida State University. Sean’s research examines how individual actors shape social structure over time. Sean has examined this phenomenon in the context of firms and political institutions and entrepreneurs and their social networks.

His work has been published in the Journal of Management and Academy of Management Conference Best Paper Proceedings.

Elyse Maltin is a PhD Student in Industrial/Organizational Psychology at the University of Western Ontario. Elyse holds a Master’s degree in I/O Psychology from Western and a BA in Psychology and English Literature from McGill University. Her research interests include workplace commitment, motivation, stress, and well-being. She has presented her work at national and international conferences, including the Canadian Psychological Association, the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada, and the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

Melissa M. McCrae is a PhD Student in Management and Organization Studies in the Faculty of Business Administration, Simon Fraser University. Her main research interests are high- performance work systems and work-life balance.

John Meyer is a Professor and Chair of the Graduate Program in I/O psychology at The University of Western Ontario. His research interests include employee commitment, work motivation, leadership, and organizational change. He has published in leading journals in the fields of I/O psychology and management, and co-authored two books: Commitment in the Workplace and Best Practices: Employee Retention. He is a fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association, the American Psychological Association, and the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, and a member of the Academy of Management. He has consulted and served on editorial boards in Canada and abroad.

Stella M. Nkomo is the Bateman Professor of Business Leadership at the University of South Africa’s Graduate School of Business Leadership, where she teaches courses in leadership, change management, and organizational behavior. A former Scholar-in-Residence at the Mary Ingraham Bunting Institute of Radcliffe College of Harvard University, her work on race and gender in organizations and managing diversity appears in numerous journals, edited volumes, and magazines. She is listed in Who’s Who in the Management Sciences. Together with Ella L. J. Bell, she co-authored Our Separate Ways: Black and White Women and the Struggle for Professional Identity (Harvard Business School Press).

Sharon K. Parker is a Professor of Organizational Psychology and Director at the Institute of Work Psychology, University of Sheffield. Her research interests are focused on work design, proactive behavior, and employee perspective taking. She has published 5 books, over 30 internationally refereed journal articles (including publications in top tier journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychology and Academy of Management Journal), over 30 book chapters and encyclopedia entries, numerous articles in practitioner outlets, and more

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than 60 technical reports. Professor Parker is an Associate Editor for the Journal of Applied Psychology.

Marjo-Riitta Parzefall is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Management and Organization at the Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration (Hanken).

She received her PhD from the London School of Economics and Political Science. Her research focuses on social exchange theory based concepts to study the employee-employer relationship, leadership and innovativeness in organizations. She has published her work in Finnish and international journals, including International Journal of Human Resource Management, Personnel Review and Creativity & Innovation Management.

Adrian H. Pitariu is a Lecturer in management at the University of Toronto. He received his PhD in Organizational Behavior from the Moore School of Business, University of South Carolina. His research interests include intra-team trust and conflict, as well as team processes and performance over time.

Tahira Probst is an Associate Professor of Industrial/Organizational Psychology at Washington State University, Vancouver. Her research focuses on occupational safety and health-related implications of organizational downsizing and employee job insecurity. In addition, she also conducts research related to issues of workplace diversity. She currently serves on the Editorial Boards of the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and the Journal of Business and Psychology, and her research has appeared in outlets such as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Group and Organization Management, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Teaching of Psychology.

Alannah Rafferty is a Lecturer in the School of Psychology at The University of Queensland, Australia. Her research interests include organizational change and development, readiness for change, and transformational leadership. Alannah has extensive experience in the development, administration, and use of surveys to inform leadership development and strategic change and within a range of private and public sector organizations. Alannah has published in a number of international high quality peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Applied Psychology, The Leadership Quarterly, and the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology.

Lily Run Ren is an Assistant Professor of Management at College of Business & Economics, Longwood University. She received her PhD from the Mays Business School, Texas A&M University. Her research interests include organizational justice, ethics, discrimination against people with disabilities, and cross-cultural studies. She has published in such journals as Human Resource Management Review and Basic and Applied Social Psychology.

Sonja Rispens is an Assistant Professor in Work and Organizational Psychology at Twente University, The Netherlands. She received her PhD in 2006 from Leiden University. Her research focuses on the effectiveness of groups in organizations, with special attention to intragroup conflict, perceptual differences regarding group processes, and deviant behavior.

Sandra L. Robinson is a Professor, and designated Distinguished University Scholar, in the Sauder School of Business at the University of British Columbia. Her past research has focused primarily on the dark side of organizational behavior, examining issues such as psychological contract breach, betrayal, workplace deviance, and aggression. She presently continues this

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theme by focusing on territorial infringement and ostracism at work. Sandra is a past recipient of the Western Academy Ascendant Scholar award, and the Cummings Scholar Award from the Organizational Behavior Division of the Academy of Management. Currently, she serves as program chair for the Organizational Behavior Division.

Sabine Sonnentag is a full Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Konstanz, Germany and a visiting Professor at the Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands. In her research she is mainly interested in how individuals can achieve sustained high performance at work and remain healthy at the same time. Sabine Sonnentag published in journals such as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, and Personnel Psychology and is currently the editor of Applied Psychology: An International Review. She is Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

Matthias Spitzmuller is a PhD Student at the Eli Broad Graduate School of Management at Michigan State University with a major in Organizational Behavior. His major research interests focus on the antecedents and consequences of discretionary work behaviors and on team decision making. Before pursing a career in academia, Matthias worked as a consultant and as assistant to the CEO at Kienbaum/Hewitt Associates. He holds an MBA from the University of St. Gallen in Switzerland. He is a member of the Academy of Management and of the Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychologists.

Gretchen Spreitzer is a Professor of Management and Organizations at the Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan. Her research focuses on employee empowerment and leadership development, particularly within a context of organizational change and decline.

Her most recent research examines how organizations can enable human thriving and help people become more of their best selves at work. She is a faculty member in the Center for Positive Organizational Scholarship (www.bus.umich.edu/positive) at the University of Michigan.

Anne Spychala is currently a Research Assistant and PhD Student at the Department of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Konstanz. In her research she is mainly interested in the interplay between job stressors and proactive work behavior of employees.

Further research interests include relationships between personality characteristics as well as strategies of small business entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial success.

James K. Summers is a PhD Candidate in Management at Florida State University. He has research interests in the areas of leadership, coalition formation, attribution theory, and teams, including how structure, change, temporal issues, and processes affect team and individual effectiveness. He has published his research in the International Journal of Organizational Theory and Behavior, and he has presented his research at several professional conferences.

Nick Turner is an Associate Professor and the Head of Business Administration at the University of Manitoba’s Asper School of Business. He joined the Manitoba faculty in 2006 after spending four years at Queen’s School of Business. He obtained his PhD from the University of Sheffield. His research interests lie in the area of occupational health psychology, with a primary focus on the psychosocial predictors of psychological and physical well-being at work. His current projects include socio-moral dimensions of transformational leadership and the social construction of workplace safety. His research has appeared in Journal of Applied Psychology and Journal of Business Ethics.

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Linn Van Dyne is a Professor in Michigan State University, has two major research programs: proactive employee behaviors and cultural intelligence. She received her PhD from the University of Minnesota. She has published in Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Research in Organizational Behavior. She is Associate Editor of Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, on numerous editorial boards (Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Academy of Management Perspectives, Human Relations, Management and Organization Review) and is a fellow in the Society of Organizational Behavior.

Judith Volmer is an Assistant Professor of Work, Organizational, and Social Psychology and lecturer at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany. She obtained her PhD in 2006 from the Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany. Her current research interests include interpersonal effects of discrete emotions in negotiations, expertise in teams, and voluntary employee behavior (e.g., creativity, proactive behavior).

Heather C. Vough is a Doctoral Candidate in Organizational Behavior at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Her research interests center on the relationship between individual identity and the workplace. She has done research investigating the dynamic nature of meaning of work, employee identification with multiple targets, and the role of self-esteem in organizational life.

Helen M. Williams is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Business and Economics at Swansea University in the UK. Her current research focuses on team working and has two themes. The first involves investigating the dynamics of work group composition and exploring the conceptual and methodological challenges of conducting group composition research. The second focuses on understanding how relational issues play out in teams, especially during the implementation of team working.

Erin R. Fluegge Woolf is a Professor in the Department of Management at Southeast Missouri State University. She holds a PhD in Business Administration from the University of Florida, and a Bachelor of General Studies and Master of Business Administration from Southeast Missouri State University. Prior to graduate school, Erin worked as a travel agent, specializing in both leisure and corporate travel. Her research interests include workplace fun, affect and emotions, job attitudes, and leadership.

Maya Yankelevich is a Doctoral Candidate at Bowling Green State University, working on her dissertation on user perceptions of error in selection devices. Ms Yankelevich’s research interests center around manager decision making in the selection process, with a particular interest in why managers reject the use of decision aids. Ms Yankelevich is also involved in research on work stress and employer well-being. She received her MA in Psychology from BGSU and her BA in Psychology and Spanish from Stetson University in DeLand, Florida.

Anthony R. Yue is a PhD Candidate (Management) at Saint Mary’s University. His interest is in how individuals navigate their experience of work. This broad interest has led to his research in a variety of areas which include disability and work, existentialism in organizational analysis, industrial relations, and entrepreneurship. He is currently pursuing a thesis regarding informal communication at work and is a member of Saint Mary’s University’s CN Center for Occupational Health and Safety.

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Christopher D. Zatzick is an Assistant Professor of Management at the Faculty of Business Administration, Simon Fraser University. He received his PhD Assistant from the University of California, Irvine. He studies a variety of organizational issues including downsizing and layoffs, high-performance work systems, turnover, diversity, and organizational change. His research has been published in a number of top journals, including Academy of Management Journal, Organization Science, and Industrial Relations.

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Introduction

C o l e t t e H o p t i o n , A m y C h r i s t i e a n d J u l i a n B a r l i n g

As we move into the 21^st century, we are witnessing enormous changes in the workplace that deeply affect the people that work in them, such as changes in how, when, where, and with whom they work.

In addition, workforce characteristics are changing in terms of how young employees start working and at what age employees then choose to stop working. Other seismic changes include the embedding of new information technologies into the fabric of our organizations (and, indeed, our lives), as well as often-intangible knowledge replacing observable units of production as the currency of work. These changes have occurred in public and private sector organizations, the organized and non-unionized sectors, non- profit businesses and family businesses.

Structural changes too have deeply affected individuals in organizations, whether it be the push toward being ‘leaner and meaner,’ hence the downsizing and restructuring of many formerly large organizations, or toward growing into global behemoths through merging and acquiring other organizations. Furthermore, these massive changes in the nature of work pose considerable and new challenges to

work performance. Subsequently, we question whether the understanding of work, and people at work, generated over the past century, remains relevant to the workplace and workforce today.

This is a propitious moment to stop and gather our thoughts as to the origins, current status, and of equal importance, future directions of organizational behavior – and it is to these issues that this Handbook is directed.

This Handbook highlights the major topics in the field of micro-organizational behavior (OB). In many important respects, the intent underlying this Handbook differs some- what from many other Handbooks. Tradition- ally, Handbooks focus mainly on integrating past and current knowledge. In contrast, the editors of this volume have specifically invited our contributors to be retrospective and prospective in their orientation. The authors explore leading research in their domain over the past several decades, and look toward future research that will lead us into the next decade.

Second, the chapters in most existing Handbooks are authored by leading

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academics and scholars who have left their footprint on the field. While respecting the value of accumulated wisdom in our choice of authors, we were also guided by the need for the field of OB to be able to generate new knowledge relevant to the changing environment. Therefore, emerging scholars who are already making substantial contributions to the field join long-standing experts in authoring this Handbook.

A third difference between this and other Handbooks is especially relevant from the perspective of this chapter. Many intro- ductory chapters are authored by leading authorities who have earned the right to provide a retrospective account of the field.

Consistent with the goal of looking both backward and forward in this Handbook, the authorship of this chapter is constituted differently. One academic already relatively long-in-the-tooth (Barling) joins with two new scholars (Hoption and Christie), and together they speculate about where micro- OB could or should be headed. The rest of this chapter, which considers conceptual and methodological issues, and their con- fluence, is the result of this collaborative effort.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN THE FUTURE

We open this discussion with a consideration of five different conceptual directions that hold considerable promise for pushing the limits of our understanding of micro-OB.

We begin at the individual level of analysis, speculating about the potential benefits of incorporating a social neuroscience perspective into the study of behavior in organizations. Thereafter, we go beyond the individual and turn our focus to relational issues in the study of OB. We then discuss organizational and societal influences on individual behavior in organizations. Last, we underscore the need to extend our focus beyond the oft-asked questions of what effects can be expected to emerge from different organizational phe- nomenon and why, and raise the importance

of understanding and predicting when such effects might be expected.

Two consistent themes cut across these five different areas. First, individual behavior in organizations does not occur in isolation;

instead, an individual’s behavior in organizations is both influenced by, and exer- cises influence upon biological, relational, organizational and societal factors. Second, historically, theory and method were often viewed as separate, with one the ‘means’ and the other the ‘end,’ as is evident in the title of Signorelli’s (1974) article ‘Statistics: Tool or master of the psychologist?’. In contrast, as will be seen in the ensuing discussion, there is now a greater rapprochement between the two, and because of methodological and statistical advances, empirical answers to our questions about each of the five conceptual directions are possible.

OB MEETS SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE

The 20^th century saw many significant advances in our understanding of human behavior. Broadly speaking, most of these advances derived from research that focused broadly on either social or biological pro- cesses. Some of the most substantial advances in our understanding of individual behavior over the past two decades have come from the field now known as social neuroscience, which merges the social and the biological, using knowledge about how broadly-based biological processes activate social interactions and behaviors (Cacioppo et al., 2007).

The breadth and depth of the lessons already learned make it imperative that the methods used in, and the knowledge derived from, social neuroscience no longer escape the purview of those wishing to expand our understanding of micro-OB. With only very few exceptions (for example, Arvey et al., 1989; Heaphy and Dutton, 2008; Nicholson, 1998), some of which are discussed in the following paragraphs, explanations of individual behavior in organizations rarely rely upon knowledge of biological processes.

Yet three specific examples will be sufficient

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to demonstrate the enormous potential from merging OB with social neuroscience.

First, an intriguing question that continues to bedevil social and behavioral scientists is the extent to which particular behaviors are either learned, or inherited. Empirical research contrasting the roles of genetic and social factors in behavior was undoubtedly stimulated by the classic studies conducted by Bouchard and his colleagues on identical twins reared apart (see Bouchard et al., 1990).

In a series of studies, they identified the extent to which genetic factors influence cognitive ability, personality, anti-social behavior and psychopathology (see Baker et al., 2007;

Bouchard et al., 1990; McGue and Bouchard, 1998).

In an early application to OB of the methodology of studying identical twins reared apart, Arvey et al. (1989) demonstrated that approximately 30 per cent of the variance in job satisfaction was accounted for by genetic factors. While the implementation of this methodology is not without its problems (Cropanzano and James, 1990), it has also been extended to the study of leadership. Given recent findings within the burgeoning field of social neuroscience (see Cacioppo et al., 2007), the question of whether leaders are ‘born or made’ is often raised. Not surprisingly, several studies have identified the genetic and environmental contributions to leadership emergence (Arvey et al., 2006; Arvey et al., 2007). Despite these advances, genetic and biological effects on the development of leadership behaviors deserve attention and robust empirical exam- ination. The need for this is accentuated when even recent calls for more integrative theory building on leadership make limited reference to the roles of genetic and biological factors (Avolio, 2007), and future calls for additional research on social neuroscience do not identify leadership development as a possible focus (Cacioppo et al., 2007).

Second, and related, a consistent finding from the broad field of social neuroscience might offer some additional ideas for our understanding of leadership, and in particular abusive leadership behaviors and

entrepreneurship. The possible influence of biological factors on aggression (and related behaviors such as social dominance, social control, and risk propensity; Dabbs, 1992) has attracted considerable empirical attention and support. In brief, this research, conducted in the field and in experiments, shows that higher levels of testosterone predispose individuals to increased aggression and related behaviors. Consistent results are found in studies where naturally-occurring levels of testosterone are measured, as well as in studies where testosterone is manipulated directly (van Honk and Schutter, 2007).

Furthermore, testosterone has also been linked to entrepreneurship. White et al., (2006) contrasted two groups in an intriguing study:

one with a substantial history of experience in the creation of new business ventures (entrepreneurs), and the other with no such experience (non-entrepreneurs). They showed that entrepreneurs evidenced higher testosterone levels than their non-entrepreneur counterparts.

As with Arvey et al.’s (1989) research pointing to variance explained in job satisfaction by non-contextual factors, pursuing a social neuroscience approach might lead to an understanding of the genetic factors inherent in leadership behaviors, and an appreciation of just how much of a leader’s behavior is under (or beyond) individual or organizational control. In addition, if biological and genetic factors explain meaningful variance in leadership emergence and behaviors, what other core organizational behaviors might be similarly influenced?

Third, an approach that honors the assump- tions of social neuroscience would extend its search for the causes of organizational behaviors beyond the social realm, suggesting that some of the explanations for behavior in organizations might well emerge very early in an individual’s life. One example of this phenomenon emerges from a recent study on the predictors of individuals’ counterproductive behavior in organizations – a frequent topic of study, as evident from Robinson’s chapter in this volume, and one which has primarily emphasized the role of

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situational factors and individual differences.

Recently, Roberts et al. (2007) examined the extent to which counterproductive workplace behaviors might be predicted by factors outside of the workplace. Their longitudinal study carried out over 23 years showed that being diagnosed with a conduct disorder by the age of 11, but no later than 18 years of age, was a significant predictor of sub- sequent counterproductive behaviors within the organization (although having a criminal record was not a significant predictor).

These results are intriguing; genetic factors have been implicated in the development of conduct disorders (Slutske et al., 1998), and early conduct disorders persist into adulthood (Campbell, 1995).

While each of the three examples presented are specific, the reason for drawing attention to them is more general: Our understanding of the causes of individuals’ behaviors in organizations can be expanded in innovative ways and directions by embracing the methods and lessons from social neuroscience.

THINKING RELATIONALLY

To understand the way in which work is now suffused by relationships, and just how much this situation has changed, we need look no further than our own work: While single-authored publications were the norm several decades ago (and in many situations even a requirement for tenure), it is now rare in our field to find instances of single authorship and this handbook itself, our introduction and the majority of the chapters are no exception! Further evidence of the relational nature of work (if any is needed) is how, throughout our collaborations with others, our own unique ideas are shared freely and frequently, and on reading the end product, it often becomes difficult to tease apart original ownership of ideas. How do we know what was self- versus other-initiated?

Mead (1934) earlier termed this phenomenon

‘a conversation of gestures,’and its prevalence and importance provides the foundation for conducting relational research.

Mead’s (1934) conversation of gestures illustrates the dilemma of understanding and predicting most organizational phenomena:

What behaviors can we study and understand without accounting for ‘the other’? Even demographic variables such as age and gender are studied relationally. As one example:

it is not being female per se that is associated with negative work experiences, but rather, being female in a male-dominated work environment that is associated with such experiences (see Gutek and Morasch, 1982). Many additional variables in OB lend themselves equally to a relational lens, including workplace aggression, leadership, discrimination, emotions and power and politics, each of which is considered in separate chapters in this Handbook.¹

Aquino and Lamertz’s (2004) model of workplace victimization exemplifies the move toward relational models in OB. As they cogently argue, ‘by proposing a relational approach, we are directly exploring the idea that such behavior must be understood as a function of a relationship that develops between a victim and perpetrator rather than solely by their individual attributes’ (Aquino and Lamertz, 2004: 1024). While this state- ment might seem self-evident, most research on workplace aggression and violence (as but one example) proceeds by focusing separately on either the victim or the perpetrator. Aquino and Lamertz (2004) are moving beyond this towards an understanding of how factors associated with the victim, the perpetrator and the relationship between the two, give rise to victimization. Several other examples of existing relational research help to illustrate its potential value to an understanding of behavior in organizations.

First, with few exceptions, traditional attempts to understand the effects of leadership proceed as if the presence or absence of followers was largely irrelevant. Recognizing the active role of followers in what is still referred to as the leadership process invites a relational perspective. Meindl et al. (1988) initially begged this question when addressing the ‘romance of leadership.’ Later, Klein and House (1995) invoked a relational perspective

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in their conceptualization of charisma: the leader may be charismatic, but charisma can only surface and flourish if and when the follower is open to charisma. More recently, dyadic-based leader-follower studies have ensued (for example, Dvir et al., 2002; Dvir and Shamir, 2003). These dyadic studies enrich our understanding of the nature and effectiveness of leadership, because they draw attention to the leader’s behavior and the follower’s active participation in interpreting (and modifying) that behavior.

As documented in the relational model of victimization and the aforementioned leadership research, other workplace behaviors may also benefit from a relational perspective. For instance, the relational lens can be used when studying courageous acts in the workplace;

heroic (or altruistic) behaviors are often conceptualized solely in terms of individual differences of the altruistic individual. Yet our understanding of such behaviors (which include phenomena such as empathy and compassion, bystander non-intervention and whistle blowing) may be further understood by understanding the relationship between the

‘hero’ and the ‘rescued’ rather than examining

‘altruistic behavior’ in isolation.

Some of the most captivating illustrations of Mead’s (1934) conversation of gestures derive from instances where explicit inten- tions to influence or affect another individual are absent. Research findings from beyond the confines of OB have provided support both for positive and negative emotional contagion.

For example, emotional contagion is evident when merely looking at others’ happy faces induces more happiness in oneself (Wild et al., 2001), and when being around depressed individuals increases one’s own depressive symptoms (Stevens and Prinstein, 2005). In a similar vein, recent research has demonstrated how indirect witnesses to displays of interpersonal injustice react negatively along with the victim (De Cremer and van Hiel, 2006).

Extending the findings of emotional contagion and vicarious learning, might it be possible that other anxieties, fears or frustrations, can be understood relationally? Similarly, might optimism and hope be equally ‘contagious’?

From the perspective of thinking relationally, perhaps the greatest insights stand to be gained from the study of marital and romantic relationship processes and interactions. Unfortunately, a common practice in the social sciences is to become specialized in one’s own areas, at the expense of understanding and benefiting from conceptual and methodological advances in other areas.

From a science that emphasized self-reports in the mid-twentieth century, marital research has gained substantial predictive power by incorporating interview, observational and self-report data, and sequential and time- series analyses (Gottman and Notarius, 2002).

Like other areas within OB (for example, workplace aggression; Barling, 1996) where our understandings have been enhanced by lessons from marital research, our understanding of relational issues in organizations may benefit meaningfully from the techniques used in marital research, the study of which may be more likely given the thoughts shared by Gottman (2007) in a recent Harvard Business Review interview.

In conclusion, many phenomena long seen as core parts of OB derive special meaning from one’s position relative to others. For example, holding more or less power in an organization (group or team), enjoying relatively more or less control (see Dupré and Barling, 2006), and being of higher or lower status (Aquino et al., 2001), necessitate relational approaches to theory and research.

Embracing such a relational approach to the study of micro-OB would provide the opportunity to consolidate and extend our understanding of individuals’ behaviors in organizations.

INDIVIDUALS ARE EMBEDDED IN ORGANIZATIONS

‘Open systems’ theory was widely-accepted as an organizing framework for understanding individuals and organizations from the middle of the 20th century. Within this framework, organizations were seen as being inseparable from the societies in which they existed, and

VolumeI OrganizationalBehavior TheSAGEHandbookof

The SAGE Handbook of

Organizational Behavior

Volume I

The SAGE Handbook of

Organizational Behavior

Volume I Micro Approaches

Edited by

Julian Barling and Cary L. Cooper

Contents

About the Editors

About the Contributors

Introduction

C o l e t t e H o p t i o n , A m y C h r i s t i e a n d J u l i a n B a r l i n g