CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Morphology
In every language, words play an important grammatical role. They are built out of smaller elements by certain patterns, and put them together to form sentences by different patterns. Morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the study and analysis of structure, forms, and classes of word.
Nida (1967:1) states that morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words. Booij (2007:24) claims that morphology is the study of internal structure of words that concerns the word formation. While Bloomfield (1933:207) mentions that the morphology of a language means the construction in which bound forms appear among the construction, by definition, the resultant for more bound forms but never phrases. Based on these statements, it could be stated that morphology as the branch of linguistics is concerned with the study of morphemes within their different forms and the way they combine together in word formation.
However, many other words consist of more than one morpheme. Most compound words, such as catfish, are created by joining together two morphemes, in this case, cat and fish, are created by joining together two morphemes, each of which can be recognized as a word that carries a meaning by itself.
In general, the analysis of a word and its component morphemes require that each morpheme occurs elsewhere in the language. It must occur with the same meaning either as a free morpheme or as a bound morpheme in other combination. For example; the morphemes re- and –ed in the word replayed also occur in many other words and have the same meaning in those words, another example, in reprinted, regained, and restarted. (re-) signifies repetition and (-ed) indicates the past tense form.
2.1.1 Word
Language is the construction of utterances, which are composed of words. Knowing a language means to understand the words of that language. When knowing a word, both its form (sound) and its meaning must be known. These are parts of the linguistic sign.
Words are usually the easiest units to identify in the written language. In written language, words are not the smallest unit meaning. Many words are made of smaller units of meaning, and these units are combined in particular a way, forming words.
of contrasting forms that differ (i) in phonological shape relates to the sounds used and (ii) in meaning.
Words that have only one morpheme are also called monomorphemic words, e.g. cat, sit, bird, etc. Words with more than one morpheme are called polymorphemic words, e.g. foolishness (fool + -ish + -ness), supernaturally (super- + natural + -ly). When we divide up the words foolishness, we get an English word fool plus a bit that is clearly English but not a word –ish, -ness. These pieces could not stand by themselves, and independence is one of the criteria for calling an element of word.
2.1.2 Morpheme
Hocket (1958:123) says, “Morphemes are the smallest individually meaningful elements in the utterances of a language”. Morphemes can be identified in a number of ways. Nida (1967:1) also states, “Morphemes as the minimal meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words” e.g. re, de, un, -ish, -ly, -ceive, etc.”
To illustrate it, it would be good to examine the following word.
Workers is made up of three morphemes, (work) + (-er) + (-s), (brackets are sometimes used to indicate morphemes). Each of the morphemes has a unique meaning: (work) = verb (however it might be represented semantically); (-er)= one who performs an action; (-s)=more than one. Together they mean something like ‘more than one person who works’.
morphs represent the same morpheme. For example, the past form of regular verbs in English which is spelled –ed could be pronounced in /id/, /d/, or /t/.
It is pronounced as:
a) /id/ if the verbs ends in /d/ or /t/
mend - mended paint - painted /mend/ - /mendid/ /peint/ - /peintid/ b) /d/ after a verb ends in any voiced sound except /d/
clean - cleaned weigh - weighed /kli:n/ - /kli:nd/ /wei/ - /weid/
c) /t/ after a verb ends in any voiceless consonant other than /t/ park - parked miss - missed
/pa:k/ - /pa:kt/ /mis/ - /mist/
If different morphs represent the same morpheme, they are grouped together and called allomorph of that morpheme. As the example above, /id/, /d/, and /t/ are grouped as allomorphs of the past tense morpheme.
Morphemes can be classified as either free or bound form: a) Free morpheme
A morpheme may also be named an independent form and it has lexical meaning. Free morpheme is a morpheme which can stand by itself to constitute words or part of words and could not be broken down into smaller meaningful units. For example: man, book, tea, sweet, and cook (Katamba 1993:41).
b) Bound morpheme
found in the dictionary. Bound morpheme always occurs with some other word element attached to it (Katamba 1993:42).
For example: re- in restart -ly in slowly
-ment in movement
The types of bound morphemes include prefixes and suffixes, such as: Prefixes: pre-, in-, im-, re-, mis-, a-, dis-, de-, un-, etc.
Suffixes: -ness, -less, -ment, -able, -attion, -ist, -er, etc.
2.2. Morphological Process
Linguists observe a language which uses the combining of bound and free morphemes to form additional or new words, they note that the occurring combinations as systemic, as we have certainly seen in English words. To illustrate, unlike that the prefix un- , meaning ‘not’, attaches to adjective, replay that the prefix re- attaches only to verb, and slowly that the suffix –ly attaches to adjective. It may say that a process is named “morphological process”.
Morphological process is a word formation by combining one morpheme with another or a word formation by making a modification to its base form (affixes). Here are some kinds of morphological process, those are; Affixation, Reduplication, Suppletion, Modification, and Compounding.
2.2.1 Affixation
(1994:18) says, “proses afiksasi terjadi apabila sebuah morfem terikat dibubuhkan atau dilekatkan pada sebuah morfem bebasnsecara urutan lurus”. (affixation process occurs when a bound morpheme attached to free morpheme or word).
An affix only occurs when attached to some other morpheme or morphemes. Affixation in English uses only prefixes and suffixes, but many other languages use infixes as well, include Indonesian language. Infixes are inserted within the root morpheme. In English words, there are no infixes.
2.2.1.1 Prefix
The meaning of prefix in the dictionary is a word or a dependent morpheme which placed in front of a word to add or to change its meaning. A prefix is an affix attached before a base or free morpheme (Katamba 1993:44).
Examples:
un- + happy = unhappy re- + play = replay dis- + able = disable
2.2.1.2 Suffix
Suffix is an affix attached after a base form or independent morpheme (Katamba 1993:44).
Examples:
2.2.2 Reduplication
Reduplication is a special kind of morphological process forming new words either by copying an entire free morpheme (full reduplication) or part of it (partial reduplication) (Booij 2007:35). This process is illustrated by the following examples (Uhlenbeck in Booij 2007:35):
a) Full reduplication
baita (ship) baita-baita (various ships) sesupe (ring) sesupe-sesupe (various rings) omaha (house) omaha-omaha
b) Partial reduplication
(various houses)
jawah (rain) jejawah (to play in the rain) tamu (guest) tetamu
In the examples of partial reduplication, the prefix consists of a copy of the first consonant of the base form followed by the vowel /e/.
(to visit)
In English we never find such reduplication as in Javanese language. However, some linguists have mentioned some words in English that can be classified as a word derived from reduplication process. The process of reduplication in English is not aimed to change from singular to plural but it is more concerned to the rhythmic of the word. Most of reduplication is informal or familiar and the most common uses of them are:
2.2.3 Modification
Modification is also one of the processes in forming word as an alternative form. There are two kinds of modification; zero modification and internal modification. In zero modification, the morphemes do not undergo only change in some situation. The form of the base form is the same with the new word. It can be used in alternative form either as singular to plural or as infinitive to past and past participle.
Examples:
1.) To change singular to plural Singular Plural sheep sheep deer deer
2.) To change infinitive to past and past participle Infinitive Past Past Participle
cut cut cut
hit hit hit
Internal modification is the process of changing a certain morpheme of a base form in order to form a new word.
Examples: Singular Plural woman women foot feet
2.2.4 Suppletion
Suppletive forms are morphologically complex forms in which the connection between the base and the newly created form is not obvious at all. We know that the regular past form is formed by suffixing -ed. Anyway what happens when we make the past of these base form:
go (past) = went take (past) = took buy (past) = bought
The result of went and took have nothing to do with the base go and take. This is a process of suppletion.
2.2.5 Compounding
Compounding is the process of combining two or more free morphemes to form a new word (Booij 2007:93). The words that are the parts of the compound can be:
a.) free morphemes
girlfriend = girl + friend blackbird = black + bird textbook = text + book
b.) free morphemes and bound morphemes air conditioner = air + condition + -er looking glass = look + -ing- + glass watch maker = watch + make +-r c.) words formed by compounding themselves
In English, there is no one formal criteria that can be used for a general definition of compounding, because the relation of their element is different.
For example: blackbird = black+bird
Black is an adjective that means the very darkest color like coal, while bird is a noun, means a feathered animal with two wings and two legs. If we combine these two words black and bird. They become blackbird which means of the family of any bird.
Compounding has its own special stress pattern. So the word, for example; ‘white house’ are noun phrase in which ‘white’ describes ‘house’, while white house, with more stress on ‘white’ is a compound.
2.3 Review of Related Study
In supporting the idea of this analysis, some relevant books and thesis have been collected. All these books have given contribution to the writing of this thesis. Some definitions, opinions, and findings from relevant books and thesis are quoted as follows:
Bloomfield (1933) says, “A free form which consists of two or lesser free form as, for instance, poor John or John ran away, is a phrase. A free form which is not a phrase is a word. A word is then a free form which does not consist entirely of two or lesser free form: in brief a word is minimum free form.”
While, Muchtar (2007) mentions that affixes are the process of forming word that is a morpheme that is attached to a free morpheme or bound morpheme.
co-/con-/cor-, mis-, re-, im-, pre-,sub-, under-, un-, en-, over-, dis-, fore-, non-, out-, ir-, and pro- do not change the form when they are attached to base form, and in its distribution, they can be attached to noun, adjective, verb, or adverb base form. Those prefixes also do not change the function. While most of suffixes such as – ment, -tion, -al, - ful, - ary, and ly, change the form if attached to base form.
Syam (2009) also concludes in his thesis that most of suffixes change the form and function if they attached to the base forms. Prefix pre-, re-, a-, al-, in-, un-, dis-, mis-, be-, im-, under-, en-, over-, out-, and fore, do not change the form when they are attached to the base forms. Syam took a novel as the source of the data for his study. Therefore, his study gives more contribution in helping the writing of this study.
