CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Grammar
In studying language, of course we can not be separated from grammar. The word grammar infact comes from the Greek grapho,meaning “write”but although
statement about the origin of words such as this may be interesting historically, we can not rely on them to tell us the current meaning of the world, as meanings change
in time.
Leech (1982:23) states that grammar can be briefly described as a set of rules for constructing and for analysing sentences. The process of analysing sentences into
their parts, or constituent, is known as parsing.
Chomski (1957:57) states that grammar is” a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analisys”.
Furthermore, Hans (1962: 6) says,”Grammar is the study of how words work together in a sentence”. Hans also says the most important of the basic grammatical
categories are those required to make up the various typical sentence patterns. In analizing sentences,grammarians assign words to basic categories or which is known as word classes or part of speech.
In traditional grammar, both form classes and function words are called the parts of speech and there are traditionally eight parts of speech, they are : noun, verb,
adjective, adverb preposition, conjunction, pronoun, and interjection. Connective is a functional term for words like conjuncts and conjunctions that join linguistic units such as sentences, clauses, phrases and words in logical relationships of time, cause
in writing because early writers move from speech like connectives such as : and,
then, but, and so on to more complex, logical connectives that are required for the construction of effective complex sentences.
Therefore one of the most important parts of speech tobe discussed is conjunction which can relate people, things and ideas to one another, and help to show the logic of the information.
2.2 The Description of Conjunction
Before discussing conjunction any further, it is better to define conjunction
which has various definitions based on different grammarians.
The word” conjunction” derives from Latin” conjunction” which means a joining together.
Danesi (2006:130) says that conjunction is a word such as and, but,as, or because that connects words, phrases, clauses,or sentences. Conjunctions are connectors that show the relationship between words, phrases,and so on. Swan
(1997:236) says that conjunction join clauses into sentences. Rozakis (2003:7) says that conjunction connect words or group of words and show how the words are
related. Hill (2005:106) says that conjunction join words,phrases,and sentences together. Waren (1990:151) says that a conjunction is a word which merely joins together sentences,and sometimes words. Conjunction join together sentences and
often make them more compact. Aygun (2003:131) says that conjunction is used to join two things, to express contrast and to express a choice of two or more things.
Azar (1993:283) Says that conjunction is used to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function a sentence. Evans (1957:112) says that conjunction are words that show a grammatical relation between other words or groups of
one. Kaplan (1995:141) states that conjunction and punctuation are important parts in
a sentence. Conjunctions are used both in speaking and writing. If a conjunction joins words, then any word that can occur between others will be a conjunctions,
coordinating and subordinating. Robert (1958 :225) states that conjunction as a word that patterns like and. The word and has two easily separable positions. It may stand between whole sentence pattern or between parts of patterns.
2.3 Types of Conjunction
Hartanto (1986 : 327) says that Konjungsi dibagi ke dalam dua golongan yang
utama:
1) Co- ordinating conjunctions. (Kata Sambung Sederajat)
2) Subordinating Conjunctions (Kata Penghubung antara Induk Kalimat dan Anak
Kalimat).
It means that conjunction can be classified into two main groups : 1) Co- ordinating conjunctions. (Equal Rank Conjunction)
2) Subordinating Conjunctions. (Conjunction between Independent Clause and Dependent Clause).
1) Coordinating Conjunction
Rozakis (2003:7) states that coordinating conjunctions link similar words or word groups.According to him there are seven coordinating conjunctions which can
be memorized by the words FANBOYS, they are : for, and, nor, but, or, yet,and so. Furthermore, Burks (1980:135) states that coordinating conjunctions join
equal sentence parts. They are actually used to join any parallel elements of the sentence,for examples:
1) Music and mathematics are related subjects. ( two subjects)
3) Did you look in the dictionary or the encyclopedia? (two objects of a preposition)
4) Did you look in the dictionary or in the encyclopedia? (two prepositional phrases) 5) The victorious party sang and danced in the streets. (two predicates)
These conjunctions are also used to join whole sentences together.
There are seven coordinate conjunctions: and , or, nor, but, for,, so, and yet.
Notice that hey have distinct meanings:
a.“And” show argumentation and additional information,for examples: 1) My brother moved to New York, and I moved to Seatle.
2) Dolphins are friendly animals, and they are also intelligent. 3) China has a huge population, and it is growing.
b.”But” and “yet” are used to show contrast. Yet is sometimes considered a
conjunctive adverb like however, rather than a coordinate conjunction, for examples: 1) Her cousin moved away, but he stayed in town.
2) Doni is a fat man, yet he eats more food.
3) Argentina is a large country , but it has a small population. c. ”Or” and nor show contrast and alternation, for examples:
1) Are you going to the party, or will you stay home? 2) I do not write Arabic, nor do I speak it very well. d. ”For” and”so”show reason, for examples:
1) That student failed, for he was very ill this year. 2) He was very busy, so he was tired.
“For” it also means “because”,for examples:
1) Population growth is a problem,for the Earth has limited resources. 2) He is sure he will succed for he has study hard.
1) China is trying to slow its population growth, so it has put limits on family size.
2) She is in hurry, so she runs very fast.
While Evans (1957:113) states that coordinating conjunction is used to connect
the sentences, which have the equal sentences, but one sentence doesn’t depend on the other.
The equal sentence can combined in to four different ways and as the result;
there are different kinds of conjunction, they are: 1. Cumulative/Additive
Cumulative/additive is adding one statement to another. it consist of conjunctions: and, both, and.... also, no less, than, not only...but, not only, but....also, and now, for examples:
And : - He lives in Jakarta, and he studies at UI.
- I opened a bedroom,changed my clothes, and slept. Both : - He is both handsome and honest
- She is both rich and kind
And....also : - Budi is a teacher,and George also.
- Joko is a trouble maker,and you are also.
Not only....but : - Not only my father,but my uncle got accident last night. - Not only our teachers but also students saw the party last
week.
Not only....but also : - He is not only bright but also hardworking.
- I not only lost his phone number, but also forgot where he lived.
Now : - Now that you have apologized, I would let you go.
2. Alternative/Disjunctive
Alternative/disjunctive is indicating that the words or phrases connected are alternatives. It consists of conjunctions: either...or,neither...nor, or, and otherwise.
For examples :
Either....or : - Either John or his friends are at school now. - Either she is ill, or she feigns illness.
Neither....nor : - He neither eats nor drinks.
- Neither Joko nor his friend is present today.
Or : - She maybe in the library or in the garden. -You may go with me or you can stay at home. Otherwise : - We must study hard; otherwise we will fail.
- They must take a taxi; otherwise they will late. 3. Adversative
Adversative is expressing opposition or contrast between two statement. It
consist of conjunctions: but, still, yet, neverthelest, however, whereas, while, and only. For Examples :
But : - He is poor but honest.
- I gave him money but he lost it.
Still : - His explanation was clear enough; still she couldn’t
understand.
- John is not rich,still he could give some donation.
Yet : - She is rich. Yet she is not satisfied. - My uncle is disabled.Yet he is happy
Nevertheless : - Julia is very pretty; nevertheless, she doesn’t have a boy
- Joe is a clever boy,nevertheless he sometimes make a
mistake.
However : - I would like to go, however I have no time.
- I went to the movie, however there was a heavy rain.
Whereas : - Jim though the examination was easy, whereas it was difficult - Lily had breakfast, whereas she had had breakfast before.
While : - Tony is a businessman, while his brother is a civil servant. - You may sit down, while I stand.
Only : - The girl is pretty only too poor.
- The metal is usefull only too expensive.
4. Illative
Illative is expressing or preceding an inference. It consist of conjunctions: therefore, so, so then,then and for.For examples :
Therefore : - I was nervous; therefore, I could do my test well.
- She was sick; therefore, I couldn’t go to school yesterday. So : - It is raining, so let’s use our umbrella.
- The time is up, so collect the homework now. So then : - It is time to do homework; so then let’s start.
- Your mother will arrive; so then you have to wait.
Then : - If you do wrong; then you must apologize.
- It is free; then you can take it as much as you need.
2) Subordinating Conjunction
Rozakis (2003:7) states that subordinating conjunction links an independent clause (complete sentence) to a dependent clause (fragment).
Wishon (1980:155) states that a subordinating conjunction introduces the adverbial clause and connects it with a word in the main clause.
There are nine subordinating conjunctions such as the following. 1. Apposition
Apposition maybe considered a changed form of adjective clause. That consist
of conjunction that, for examples:
That : - He ran fast that he might not be late.
- it was such an interesting book that I read it all day long.
2. Time
Subordinating conjunctions is a form of adverbial clause of time.the kinds of clauses consist of conjunctions: when (ever) , while, since, before, after, until, till, as,
as soon as, as long as, and now that, for examples:
Whenever : - He read law books whenever he had the chance.
- He comes to me whenever he likes.
While : - Tony is a businessman, while his brother is a civil servant. - You may sit down, while I stand.
Since : - Since you have already studied that chapter, it will not be necessary to read it again.
- Since it is raining hard, take your umbrella. Before : - She will see you before she leaves.
- He was a member of the legislature of his state before he
After : - After talking a lot, we came home.
- After saying good bye, he goes to school every day. Until : - john maintained his interest in law until he was
assassinated.
- Joko is working in American course until September. As : - As my mother was taking shower, the accident happened.
- As he was walking, I saw him peeping. As soon as : - As soon as it grew dark, we took an umbrella.
- As soon as he found the key, he gave it to the principal. As long as : - As long as he was here he was cheerfull
- I will give your daily needs as long as you are faithfull to me. Now (that) : - Now that you have apologized, I would let you go.
- Now that you have lived here, I would treat you like my friend.
3. Place
Subordinating conjunction is a form of adverbial clause of place. The kinds of
clause consist of where, wherever, for examples:
Where : - Mother found the place where father was arrested - Lili could see the parade from where he stood.
Wherever : - He takes his dog along wherever he goes.
- We saw some papers around the bedroom wherever we
4. Contrast
Subordinating conjunction is a form of adverbial clause of contrast. The kinds of clause consist of the conjunction although, though, eventhough, for examples:
Although : - She is happy although she is not rich.
- I will give you the money although you will never be able to return it
Though : - Though he is poor he is honest.
- Though he is still twenty-one years old, she looks older.
Eventhough : - Eventhough it was raining, he went to the party. - Eventhough Iam ill I woun’t it the food.
5. Cause
Subordinating conjunction is a form of adverbial clause of result. The kinds of clause consist of conjunction: because, since, as, now (that) whereas, as long as, for examples:
Because : - They had to move because the storm had blown off their house.
- They helped him because he was very poor.
Since : - Since she couldn’t take the last bus he walked home on foot. - Since we can’t live with honour let’s die fighting.
As : - As he was not here, I spoke to her sister.
- As the door couldn’t be opened,they broke it down.
Now ( that) : - Now (that) you have helped my mother, I will appreciate you with the price.
Whereas : - I though the examination was easy, whereas it was difficult.
- Father went to the movie quickly,whereas mother went slowly.
As long as : - As long as he is honest his friends love him. - As long as he was here he was cheerfull.
6. Result
Subordinating conjunctions is a form of adverbial clause of result. The kinds of clause consist of the conjunction so....that, such (a)....that, and so (that), for
examples:
So....that : - Kintamani is so wonderfull that many tourist come there. - We were so busy that we forgot to take our lunch.
Such (a)....that : -This was such a rude thing that made him unhappy.
- That was such an ugly monkey that every one felt so afraid. So (that) : - The minister spoke so long time so that people began to
leave.
- We must becarefull so that we will not get lost.
7. Purpose
Subordinating conjunction is a form of adverbial clause of condition. The kind of clause consist of the conjunction if, even if, unless, in case, if only, as long
as,suppose (that), and wether....or, for examples:
If : - If I pass the exam, my father will buy me a motorcycle.
- If they were here now, we could go together. Even if : - Even if she loves you, she will not mary you.
Unless : - I will not go to to your party unless you invite me.
- Unless the stike is called off, the workers will remain idle. In case : - Incase the fire occurs in the office, we must notify the fire
department.
- In case there is a murder, we must call the police. If only : - I would tell you the secret, if only you were my mother.
- I would treat the boy as my son, if only I were a king. As long as : - As long as the game is fair, the mayor will support it.
- As long as the economic condition is getting better,it can decrease some criminal.
Suppose that : - They are supposed tobe here at this moment.
- The plane was supposed to arrive at ten this morning. Wether....or : - Wether he is at school or he helps his mother is not my
concern.
- Wether the students like or dislike the movie they must pay it.
8. Manner
Subordinating is form of adverbial clause of manner. The kinds of clause consist of the conjuction as if, as though, and as, for examples :
As if : - Andi is walking as if he is dancing.
- Hotcen comes infront as if he knew the answer.
As though : - He pretended as though he didn’t know me. - We treats her as though she were a queen. As : - As she was not here I spoke with her sister.
9. Comparison
Subordinating conjunction is a form of adverbial clause of comparison. The kinds of clause consist of conjunction than, for examples :
Than : - He is more handsome than his brother.
- It is better go home now than staying outside.
2.4 The Position of Conjunction
Generally all of the conjunctions occur between the sentence patterns, but it may occur at the beginning of the patterns, at the end of the second pattern, or in the
middle of the second pattern, for examples :
1. We went to the movie,however it was raining a lot. 2. We went to the movie,it was raining a lot however.
3. We went to the movie,it was,however,raining alot.
Moreever, the clause coordinators are restriced to initial position in the clause, for example :
1. Budi send a letter and his father send a message.
And clauses began with coordinator can not be moved to front of the clause because
it will change the relationship of the clauses, for examples : a. They are studying in UI or they are meeting there. b. Or they are meeting there,they are studying in UI.
But few words occur sometimes as subordinators and as connectors in the sentences, for examples :
1. Though he did not want to reverse,he had it 2. He did it,he did not want to, though.
In the sentence (1) the conjunction “though” is a subordinator and in the sentence (2)
“though” is a connector, while in (3) “though” is in shared position. 2.5 The Punctuation of Conjunction
When and connects only two items within a sentence, no comma are used. When and connects three or more items in a series in a sentence, commas are used. Examples :
1) I saw a cat and a mouse. 2) I saw a cat, a mouse, and a rat.
3) I opened the door and walked in to the room.
4) I opened the door, walked into the room, and sat down at my desk. 5) Their flag is green and black.
6) Their flag is green, black, and yellow. In (1) : and connects two nouns:
cat + mouse = no commas.
In (2) : and connects three or more nouns, so commas are used.
In (3) : no commas are used because and connects only two verbs (opened + walked).
In (4) : Commas are used because and connects three verbs (opened + walked + sat). In (5) : and connects two adjectives (no commas)
In (6) : and connects three adjectives (commas)
When and connects two independent clauses, a comma is usually used. Examples :
2.6 The Uses of Conjunction
Most of conjunctions are used as connectors, which are divided into four main types, they are :
A. Coordinating conjunction connects two or more elements of equal rank. Thus they form pairs of series of it with a grammatical structure, for examples :
1. The teacher gave the answer, and the students wrote it fast.
2.The town was enclosed by a stong wall, but the enemy could capture it. 3.The manager distributed so much money,for he did not succed in his effort.
B. Moveable clause as connectors or linking adverb such as : therefore, consequently, thus, accordingly, nevertheless, however, yet, and furthermore, for
examples :
1.She came here earlier; however he did not do anything.
2. John always works hard; nevertheless,he hardly has enough money. 3. My sister is being sick; therefore, she can not go to school.
C. Subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses to different parts of sentences. Dependent clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions may serve
various function:
a. As Modifiers, for example :
1. When the postman came,my mother took the letter quickly. (adverbial modifiers).
b. As a subject,for example :
1.That he was honest was plain to all.
c. As apposition, for example :
1. The plan that interests Mr. Budi will be done soon.
d. As Direct object, for example :
e. As Predicate noun, for example :
1. My mother’s react was then the suspect gave wrong evidence. 2.7 The Difrence Between Conjunction With Preposition
The difrence is that conjunction is followed by clause, while preposition is followed by phrase.
Examples:
Conjunction : They were upset because they were delayed. Preposition : They were upset because of the delay.
Conunction : Although it rained, we enjoyed ourselves. Preposition : Despite the rain, we enjoyed ourselves. Conjunction : We stayed indoors while the storm raged.
