Mass Society and Democracy

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290

Mass Society and

Democracy

1870–1914

.

The Big Ideas

,

SECTION 1: The Growth of Industrial Prosperity

New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact and govern. Industrialization led to dramatic increases in productivity as well as to new political theories and social movements.

SECTION 2: The Emergence of Mass Society

New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact and govern. The Second Industrial Revolution led to more leisure for all classes, and women began to expand their education and career opportunities.

SECTION 3: The National State and Democracy

Moral and ethical principles influence the development of political thought. Democ-racy triumphed in Western Europe, authoritarianism prevailed in the East, the United States became an industrial powerhouse, and the European powers prepared for war.

SECTION 4: Toward the Modern Consciousness

New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact and govern. Radical change in the economic and social structure of the West created equally dramatic intel-lectual and artistic change.

World History—Modern Times Video

The Chapter 5 video, “The Industrial Movement,” chronicles the impact of the development and advancements of the Second Industrial Revolution.

290

1835

1845

1855

1865

1875

1848

The Communist Manifestois published

1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone

1871 British unions gain legal recognition 1861

First Civil War battle fought in United States

Transmitter and receiver used for first telephone call

Karl Marx

CORBIS

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291

HISTORY

Chapter Overview

Visit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Web site at and click on Chapter 5– Chapter Overviewto preview chapter information.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

291

1885

1895

1905

1915

1925

1888 Eastman creates the Kodak camera

1889 Daimler and Maybach build gasoline-powered car

1901

Marconi sends radio waves across the Atlantic 1905

A revolution in Russia produces limited reforms

1914 World War I begins

The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Trainby Claude Monet, 1877 This painting illustrates Monet’s fascination with light as it is reflected and absorbed by the sky, clouds, windows, and trains.

World War I recruitment poster

Daimler-Stahlradwagen, 1889

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H

ave you ever asked a friend to tell you what happened in an episode of a TV show? You were asking for a summary of the most important parts, not a description of every detail. Good readers summarize as they read. To do this, they use a few words of their own to capture the main ideas. Summarizing is useful for taking notes. It also helps you predict what will come next in the story.

When should you pause to summarize what you’ve been reading? Often, the end of a long paragraph or the end of a section is a good place to stop and summarize.

Read the following excerpt from the chapter.

SUMMARIZING

TIP

Try summarizing the most

important points on paper and

in your mind. Then talk to other

students to find out how they

summarized a specific section.

As you read the chapter, pause to summarize, especially when you feel there is a lot of information. If a paragraph or section is challenging, make a chart to show the most important facts or conclusions. This technique will help your mental ability to summarize.

CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy 292

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Discuss with another student what Pankhurst meant when she said that the vote was “an instrument.” Do you think that voters have always thought of the vote in this way? Why or why not?

H

istorians examine trends in politics, economics, and social life so that they can draw larger conclusions about a certain time period. If they can see that the same kinds of things are happening in the political world—for example, political rallies for a certain cause—they would be alerted to a trend.

In the late 1800s, political institutions in some Western European countries were moving toward greater democracy. More and more people were pressing for the vote. In Great Britain, even women were campaigning for the vote. (In other Euro-pean nations, France and Italy, for example, women did not achieve the vote until the 1940s.)

Examine this excerpt from a speech by the British suffragist Emmeline Pankhurst in 1908 to see the connections being made between voting rights and representative governments:

“[The vote] is a symbol of freedom, a symbol of citizenship, a symbol of liberty. It is a safeguard of all those liberties which it symbolizes. And in these later days it has come to be regarded more than anything else as an instrument, something with which you can get a great many more things than our forefathers who fought for the vote ever realised as possible to get with it. . . .”

At this point in history, women did not have the right to vote. Based on her speech, why did Pankhurst think suffrage was so important? How representative is a government in which not everyone is able to vote?

Historical Interpretation: Standard HI 1

Students show the connections, causal and otherwise, between particular historical events and larger social, economic, and political trends and developments.

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The New Leisure

y the second half of the nineteenth century, new work patterns had established the concept of the weekend as a distinct time of recreation and fun. New forms of trans-portation—railroads and streetcars—enabled workers to make brief trips to amusement parks. Coney Island was only eight miles from central New York City; Blackpool, in Eng-land, was a short train ride from nearby industrial towns.

With their Ferris wheels and other daring rides that threw young men and women together, amusement parks offered a whole new world of entertainment. Before leaving, people purchased picture postcards to remember the day’s fun.

Thanks to the railroad, seaside resorts—once visited only by the wealthy—became accessible to more people for week-end visits. One upper-class seaside resort regular expressed his disgust with the new “day-trippers”:

“They swarm upon the beach, wandering about with apparently no other aim than to get a mouthful of fresh air. You may see them in groups of three or four—the husband, a pale man, dressed in black coat, carries the baby; the wife, equally pale and thin, decked out in her best, labors after with a basket of food. And then there is generally another child . . . wandering behind.”

Businessmen in resorts like Blackpool, however, welcomed the crowds of new visitors and built for them boardwalks laden with food, drink, and entertainment.

B

Steeplechase swimming pool at Coney Island, New York, c. 1919

Why It Matters

A new leisure was one part of the mass society that emerged in the late nineteenth century. The devel-opment of this new mass society helped improve the lives of the lower classes, who benefited from extended voting rights, a better standard of living, and public educa-tion. In addition, the European nation-states now fostered national loyalty and created mass armies. Political democracy grew as the right to vote was extended to all adult males.

History and You In 1850, a per-son born in the West could expect to live about 40 years. By 1910, life expectancy had increased to 54 years. Using a recent almanac, com-pare the life expectancy rates of people in the United States, United Kingdom, and Russia today with the rates in 1910. Create a bar graph with the data you find.

294

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The Growth of

Industrial Prosperity

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section Preview

Industrialization led to dramatic increases in productivity as well as to new political theories and social movements.

•In Western Europe, the introduction of electricity, chemicals, and petroleum triggered the Second Industrial Revolu-tion, and a world economy began to develop. (p. 296)

•Industrialization gave some a higher standard of living, but struggling work-ers turned to trade unions or socialism to improve their lives. (p. 298)

Content Vocabulary

assembly line, mass production, proletariat, dictatorship, revisionist

Academic Vocabulary

generator, transform, emerge

People to Identify

Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Guglielmo Marconi, Karl Marx

Places to Locate

the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Austria-Hungary

Reading Objectives

1. Define the Second Industrial

Revolution.

2. List Karl Marx’s main ideas.

Reading Strategy

Cause and Effect As you read, complete a diagram like the one below showing the relationship between certain resources and the products that resulted from their use.

California Standards in This Section

Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.

10.3:

Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Rev-olution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.

10.3.2:

Examine how scientific and technological changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pas-teur, Thomas Edison).

10.3.3:

Describe the growth of population, rural to urban migration, and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution.

10.3.4:

Trace the evolution of work and labor, including the demise of the slave trade and the effects of immigration, mining and manufacturing, division of labor, and the union movement.

10.3.5:

Understand the connections among natural resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in an industrial economy.

10.3.6:

Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a domi-nant economic pattern and the responses to it, including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Social-ism, and Communism.

Electricity Steel

Internal-combustion engine

Resources Products

1889

The Second International socialist association forms

1903

Wright brothers make first flight

1879

Thomas Edison invents the lightbulb

1875

Creation of German Social Democratic Party

1848

Marx and Engels publish The Communist Manifesto

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1855

✦

1865

✦

1875

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1885

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1895

✦

1905

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The Second Industrial Revolution

In Western Europe, the introduction of electric-ity, chemicals, and petroleum triggered the Second Indus-trial Revolution, and a world economy began to develop.

Reading Connection

Does your life come to a halt when the power goes out? Read to learn what happened when elec-tricity first became a part of everyday life.

In the late nineteenth century, the belief in progress was so strong in the West that it was almost a religion. Europeans and Americans had been con-verted by the stunning bounty of products of the Sec-ond Industrial Revolution. In the first Industrial Revolution, textiles, coal, iron, and railroads were major elements. In the Second Industrial Revolution, steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum were the keys to making economies even more productive.

New Products

One major industrial change

between 1870 and 1914 was the substitution of steel for iron. New methods for shaping steel made it use-ful in building lighter and faster machines and engines, as well as railways, ships, and weapons. In 1860, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium produced 125,000 tons (112,500 t) of steel. By 1913, the total was an astounding 32 million tons (29 million t).

Electricity was a major new form of energy. It could be easily converted into other forms of energy, such as heat, light, and motion, and could be sent over long distances by means of wires. In the 1870s, the first practical generators of electrical current were

devel-oped. By 1910, hydroelectric power stations and coal-fired, steam-driven generating plants enabled homes and factories alike to draw upon a reliable, versatile, clean, and convenient source of power.

Electricity gave birth to a series of inventions. The creation of the lightbulb by Thomas Edison in the

United States and Joseph Swan in Great Britain opened homes and cities to electric lights. A revolu-tion in communicarevolu-tions began when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio waves across

the Atlantic in 1901.

By 1900, streetcars and subways powered by elec-tricity had appeared in major European cities. Elec-tricity transformed the factory as well. Conveyor

belts, cranes, and manufacturing machines could all be powered by electricity. With electric lights, facto-ries could operate 24 hours a day.

The development of the internal-combustion engine, fired by oil or gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation. This engine gave rise to ocean liners and warships with oil-fired engines, as well as to the airplane and the automobile. In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first powered flight in a fixed-wing plane at Kitty Hawk, North Car-olina. In 1908, Henry Ford produced his first Model T.

296 CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy

Guglielmo Marconi made one of the era’s most striking discoveries, wireless telegraphy, on Decem-ber 12, 1901. The scientist and inventor described it in these words:

“

Shortly before mid-day I placed the single ear-phone to my ear and started listening. . . . I was at last on the point of putting . . . my beliefs to test. The answer came at 12:30 when I heard, faintly but distinctly, pip-pip-pip. I handed the phone to Kemp: ‘Can you hear anything?’ I asked. ‘Yes,’ he said, ‘the letter S’—he could hear it. . . . The electric waves sent out into space from Britain had traversed the Atlantic—the distance, enormous as it seemed then, of 1,700 miles—It was an epoch in history. I now felt for the first time absolutely certain the day would come when mankind would be able to send mes-sages without wires . . . between the farthermost ends of the earth.

”

Edison in 1915 with his portable searchlight

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In the cities, the first department stores began to sell a new range of products made possible by the steel and electrical industries—clocks, bicycles, elec-tric lights, and typewriters, for example. Glass tech-nology also inspired stores to create eye-catching window displays of the latest fashions.

Not everyone benefited from the Second Industrial Revolution. By 1900, Europe was divided into two eco-nomic zones. Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands,Germany, the western part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern Italy made up an advanced industrialized core. These nations had a high standard of living and advanced transportation.

In the rest of Europe—southern Italy, Spain, Portugal,the Balkans, Russia,and most of Austria-Hungary—the economy was still largely agricul-tural. These countries provided food and raw materials for the industrial countries, and their peo-ples often had a much lower standard of living.

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North Sea

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S eine_R

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Sicily Sardinia

Corsica

BalearicI slands

NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND RUSSIA GREECE BALKANS AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ITALY SWITZ. FRANCE SPAIN PORTUGAL UNITED KINGDOM DENMARK GERMANY NETH. BELG. Lisbon Madrid Toulouse Marseille St. Etienne Limoges Paris London _Berlin Nuremberg Salerno Naples Rome Belgrade Vienna Breslau Warsaw Stockholm St. Petersburg Moscow Constantinople Barcelona

Industrialization of Europe by 1914

Chemicals Electricity Engineering Oil production Steel Area City Industry: Industrial concentration:

Steel, electricity, and chemicals were some of the products of the Second Industrial Revolution.

1. Interpreting Maps Locate places with the heaviest concentration of industry. What geographic factors pro-moted industry in these areas?

2. Applying Geography Skills Use the information pro-vided in this map to create a chart that shows the types of industry in each country.

The Model T was very affordable and kicked off the era when many people owned cars.

New Patterns

Industrial production grew at a rapid

pace because the demand, or market, for goods was a mass market. Many more Europeans could afford to buy products. Their wages increased after about 1870. At the same time, manufactured goods were becoming cheaper: both production and transporta-tion were more efficient. One of the biggest reasons for more efficient production was the assembly line,

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The Automobile

M

any new forms of transportation were created in the Industrial Revolu-tion, but none affected more people on a daily basis than the automo-bile. It was the invention of the internal-combustion engine that made the automobile possible.

A German engineer, Gottlieb Daimler, invented a light, portable internal-combustion engine in 1885. In 1889, Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach pro-duced an automobile powered by a gasoline engine that reached a speed of 10 miles [16 km] per hour. In 1926, Daimler and Karl Benz, another German, merged to form Daimler-Benz, an automotive company that would later manufacture the Mercedes-Benz.

Early cars were handmade and expensive. Only several hundred were sold between 1893 and 1901. Their slow speed, 14 miles [22.5 km] per hour, was a problem, too. Early models were not able to climb steep hills.

An American, Henry Ford, revolutionized the car industry in 1908 by using an assembly line to mass-produce his Model T. Before, it had taken a group of workers 12 hours to build a single car. Now,

the same number of workers could build a car in an hour and a half. By cutting production costs, Ford lowered the price of the automobile. A Model T cost $850 in 1908 but only $360 by 1916. By 1916, Ford’s factories were producing 735,000 cars a year. By 1925, Ford’s Model T cars would make up half of the automobiles in the world. Analyzing Why were early cars expensive?

1914 Ford Model T

Ford Model U, 2003

Internal-combustion engine Distributor

Cylinder

Piston

Toward a World Economy

The period of the

Sec-ond Industrial Revolution marked a major step toward a true world economy. Transportation by steamship and railroad contributed to this advance. A European living in 1900 had the benefit of products from faraway places—beef and wool from Argentina and Australia, coffee from Brazil, iron ore from Alge-ria, and sugar from Java in Indonesia.

Another part of the world economy was financial. European money was invested in other foreign enter-prises that would produce a profit—railroads, mines, electric power plants, and banks. Of course, foreign countries also provided markets for the manufac-tured goods of Europe. With its capital, industries, and military might, Europe dominated the world economy by the beginning of the twentieth century.

Explaining What parts of Europe still had an agricultural economy in the early twentieth century? Reading Check

Organizing the Working Class

Industrialization gave some a higher standard of living, but struggling workers turned to trade unions or socialism to improve their lives.

Reading Connection

Do you hear news stories about life in a communist country such as China or Cuba? Read to learn about the first socialist movements in Europe.

The transition to an industrialized society was very hard on workers. It disrupted their lives and forced them to move to crowded slums. They had to give up occupations they knew and liked, and work long hours at mind-numbing tasks. Eventually this trans-formation gave workers a higher standard of living. This was not true at first, however, and for many workers, improved conditions took many decades.

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May Day

On May 1, 1997, parades and demonstrations took place around the world. Mexican workers poured into the streets of Mexico City to denounce the North Amer-ican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Workers believed it had caused a decline in their wages. In Seoul, Korean workers hurled rocks at police to protest government corruption in South Korea. In Berlin and Leipzig, union workers marched to protest high unemployment in Ger-many. In Beijing, people filled Tiananmen Square to praise workers at the beginning of a three-day vacation. In Japan, two million workers attended rallies across the country. Fifteen thousand workers marched in the

streets of San Salvador to demand that the government pass laws to benefit the workers of El Salvador.

Why did these marches and demonstrations occur around the world on May 1? In the nineteenth century, the rise of socialist parties in Europe led to a movement to form an international organization. The purpose of this organization was to strengthen the position of socialist parties against international capitalism.

In 1889, leaders of various socialist parties formed the Second International, a loose association of national groups. Its first action was to declare May 1 as May Day, an international labor day to be marked by strikes and mass labor demonstrations. Although the Second Inter-national no longer exists, workers around the world still observe May Day.

䊴_{May Day rally near}

St. Basil’s cathedral in Moscow, May 1, 1997

Using outside sources, research what occurred last May 1. Were May Day celebrations held, and if so, where? Is May 1 still an international labor day? Reformers of this era believed that industrial

cap-italism was heartless and brutal. They wanted a new kind of society. Some reformers were moderates. They were willing to work within the system for gradual changes like fewer hours, better benefits, and safe working conditions. Often they used trade unions to achieve these practical goals.

Other reformers were more radical or even revolu-tionary. They wanted to abolish the capitalist system entirely and to create a socialist system. To achieve this goal, they supported socialist parties. Socialist parties emergedafter 1870, but their theory for a new

society came largely from Karl Marx. Marx was a socialist, and one form of Marxist socialism was eventually called communism (see Chapter 8).

Marx’s Theory

Karl Marx was one of the most

influential theorists of the century. His socialist the-ory first came to light when The Communist Manifesto

was published during the Revolution of 1848, just when workers were demonstrating in the streets.

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and his friend

and coauthor Friedrich Engels denounced the new industrial economy and predicted that it would be

defeated. A workers’ revolution was bound to occur. When the revolution came, it would destroy capital-ism. Material wealth could then be distributed equally among all workers.

Marx believed that the oppressor and oppressed have “stood in constant opposition to one another” through all history. After the Industrial Revolution occurred, the oppressors were the capitalists with the capital, or money, to invest. They owned the land and the raw material; thus, they had total power over production. In Marx’s view, the oppressed were the workers who owned nothing and who depended for their very survival on the capitalists.

Around him, Marx believed he saw a society that was “more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.” The term

bourgeoisiewas well known as a way of referring to the middle class, but Marx popularized the term

proletariat (PROH•luh•TEH•ree•uht) as a way of

referring to the working class.

Marx predicted that the struggle between the two groups would finally lead to revolution. The prole-tariat would violently overthrow the bourgeoisie.

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Then a dictatorship of the proletariat would be

formed to abolish capitalism and create a socialist economy. (A dictatorship is a government in which a person or small group has absolute power.) After this dictatorship abolished economic differences among classes, a classless society would come about. The state itself, which had been a tool of the bourgeoisie, would wither away.

Socialist Parties

People inspired by Marx and by

the goals of socialism began to form political parties to change society. The most important was the Ger-man Social Democratic Party (SPD), founded in 1875. The SPD advocated a Marxist revolution. Bismarck, the German prime minister, outlawed the SPD in 1878, but the party grew and in 1890 it was legalized. In the German parliament, SPD representatives lobbied for laws to improve working conditions. In 1912, four million Germans voted for SPD candidates. It had become the largest party in Germany. Because the German constitution gave greater power to the upper house and the German emperor, the SPD was not able to bring about the kind of changes it wanted. Socialist parties emerged in other European states, too. As early as 1862, the First International was founded to promote socialist goals. It died out quickly because its members could not agree on tactics.

In 1889, the Second International was founded, but socialist parties continued to disagree over pre-cise goals and tactics. So-called pure Marxists thought that only a violent revolution could defeat capitalism. Other Marxists, revisionists,rejected the

idea of violent revolution. They argued that workers

could achieve socialism through the parliamentary system. If more and more workers won the right to vote, they said, the laws could be changed and work-ers would have better lives. In other words, socialism would be achieved gradually and by working through the system, not through violent revolution.

Trade Unions

Another movement for workers

focused on the trade union, or labor union. To improve their conditions, workers organized in a union. Then the union had to get the employer to rec-ognize its right to represent workers in collective bar-gaining, negotiations with employers over wages and hours.

The right to strike was another important part of the trade union movement. In a strike, a union calls on its members to stop work in order to pressure employers to meet their demands for higher wages or improved factory safety. At first, laws were passed that made strikes illegal under any circumstances. In Great Britain, in 1870, unions won the right to strike. By 1914, there were almost four million workers in British trade unions. In the rest of Europe, trade unions had varying degrees of success in helping workers achieve a better life.

Summarizing How would you sum-marize Marx’s theory as stated in The Communist Manifesto? Reading Check

Checking for Understanding

1. VocabularyDefine: generator, trans-form, assembly line, mass production, emerge, proletariat, dictatorship, revisionist.

2. PeopleIdentify: Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Guglielmo Marconi, Karl Marx.

3. PlacesLocate: the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Austria-Hungary.

Reviewing Big Ideas

4. Explainhow Marx’s ideas came to directly affect society.

Critical Thinking

5. Contextualizing

What is the relationship between the large number of technical innovations made during this period and the grow-ing need for labor reforms and unions?

6. Compare and Contrast Use a Venn diagram like the one below to compare and contrast the first and second Indus-trial Revolutions.

Analyzing Visuals

7. Comparethe photos of the two Ford vehicles on page 298. Do you think that style and practicality weighed equally with car buyers in the 1920s as it does today? Why or why not?

CAHI 3

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World

History—Modern Times,go to and

click on Study Central.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

Study Central

HISTORY

First Industrial Revolution

Second Industrial Revolution

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The Emergence of

Mass Society

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section Preview

The Second Industrial Revolution led to more leisure for all classes, and women began to expand their education and career opportunities.

•As workers migrated to cities, local governments had to solve urgent public health problems, and their solutions allowed cities to grow even more. (p. 302)

•European society settled into three broad social classes—upper, middle, and lower—but many subgroups existed within the three classes. (p. 304)

•Attitudes toward women changed as they moved into white-collar jobs, received more education, and began agitating for the vote. (p. 306)

•As a result of industrialization, the levels of education rose, and people’s lives were more clearly divided into periods of work and leisure. (p. 308)

Content Vocabulary

feminism, literacy

Academic Vocabulary

innovation, objective

People to Identify

Florence Nightingale, Emmeline Pankhurst

Reading Objectives

1. Identify the main characteristics of the European middle class in the nine-teenth century.

2. List the major changes in women’s social status between 1870 and 1914.

Reading Strategy

Summarizing Information As you read, complete a graphic organizer summariz-ing social class divisions.

California Standards in This Section

10.3:

10.3.2:

Examine how scientific and technological changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison).

10.3.3:

Describe the growth of population, rural to urban migration, and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution.

10.3.4:

Trace the evolution of work and labor, including the demise of the slave trade and the effects of immigration, mining and manufacturing, division of labor, and the union movement.

10.3.5:

Understand the connections among natural resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in an industrial economy.

10.3.6:

Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a domi-nant economic pattern and the responses to it, including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Social-ism, and Communism.

Social Classes

Working Middle Wealthy

1870

British wives gain greater property rights

1903

Women’s Social and Political Union established

1881

First publication of London’s Evening News

1885

10,000 people watch British Soccer Cup finals

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Fewer than 20 20–50 50–100 More than 100

Inhabitants per square mile:

In 1820, a small percentage of Europeans lived in cities. 1. Interpreting Maps

Where was the heaviest concentration of Euro-peans per square mile in 1820?

2. Applying Geography Skills Create a database that lists each country or empire shown on the map. Using the legend, estimate the inhabitants per square mile for each country. Which European country had the fewest inhabitants per square mile?

1820

302

The government’s failure to provide clean water was satirized in Punch,the famous humor magazine, in 1849. It was enough to make any Londoner think twice before drinking the next glass of water.

“

This is the water that JOHN drinks. This is the Thames with its cento* of stink, That supplies the water that JOHN drinks. These are the fish that float in the inky stream of the Thames with its cento of stink, That supplies the water that JOHN drinks. This is the sewer from cesspool and sink, That feeds the fish that float in the inky stream of the Thames with its cento of stink, That supplies the water that JOHN drinks.

”

*Usually refers to a poetic blend of parts of literary works; here used sarcastically to refer to the mucky waters of the Thames River.

The New Urban Environment

As workers migrated to cities, local govern-ments had to solve urgent public health problems, and their solutions allowed cities to grow even more.

Reading Connection

Have you heard adults in your community talk about landfill problems? Read to learn about government solutions to similar problems in the late 1800s.

By the end of the nineteenth century, the new industrial world had led to the emergence of a mass society in which the condition of the majority—the lower classes—was demanding some sort of govern-mental attention. The lower classes were concen-trated in cities where, as voters, they became a political force.

Governments that used to be concerned only with the interests of the wealthier members of society now had to consider how to appeal to the masses. Hous-ing was one area of great concern—crowded quarters could easily spread disease. An even bigger threat to health was public sanitation. From the 1850s on, this was an urgent mutual concern in many big cities.

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Black Sea Eb ro R_. Loire R. Seine R. Rhine R. DanubeR. Po R. SPAIN FRANCE ITALY SWITZ. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE GERMAN EMPIRE BELG. NETH. UNITED KINGDOM DENMARK SWEDEN NORWAY RUSSIAN EMPIRE Sardinia Sicily Crete Corsica PORTUGAL Dublin Edinburgh Birmingham Lisbon Madrid Barcelona Marseille Bordeaux _Geneva Genoa Milan Venice Florence Rome Naples Palermo Z¨urich Paris Brussels Amsterdam Strasbourg Frankfurt Munich Berlin Vienna Budapest Krak´ow Warsaw Copenhagen Stockholm London Prague Portsmouth

Fewer than 20 20–50 50–100 More than 100

Inhabitants per square mile:

Two population changes occurred in Europe from 1820 to 1900: the overall population increased, and it shifted from rural to urban areas.

1. Interpreting Maps Which country has the greater population density: Spain or Italy? 2. Applying Geography Skills Analyze the rela-tionship between the increased urban popula-tions shown here and the areas of industrial concentration shown on the map on page 297.

1900

303 The population figures tell the story. In the early

1850s, urban dwellers made up about 40 percent of the English population, 15 percent of the French, 10 percent of the population in Prussia (the largest of the German states), and 5 percent in Russia. By 1890, urban dwellers had increased to about 60 percent in England, 25 percent in France, 30 percent in Prussia, and 10 percent in Russia. In heavily industrialized nations, cities grew tremendously. Between 1800 and 1900, for example, the population of London grew from 960,000 to 6,500,000.

Cities grew quickly because vast numbers of peo-ple from rural areas migrated to them. In the coun-tryside, they no longer had jobs, and in many countries, the land had never been theirs. In cities, they found work in factories and, later, in new white-collar jobs.

Cities also grew quickly after the 1850s because municipal governments had made innovations in

public health and sanitation. Thus many more people could survive living close together.

Improvements had come only after reformers in the 1840s began urging local governments to do some-thing about the filthy conditions that caused disease. Cholera, which is caused by a contaminated water

supply, was the most deadly disease—a person might die in a matter of a few days. Cholera epidemics rav-aged many European cities in the 1830s and 1840s.

Reformers blamed some problems on the lack of restraints on builders. City governments responded by creating boards of health to improve housing. Medical officers and building inspectors inspected dwellings for health hazards. Cities began requiring running water and internal drainage systems for new buildings.

Clean water and an effective sewage system were critical to public health. The need for fresh water was met by dams and reservoirs to store water and by the aqueducts and tunnels to carry it from the country-side to urban homes. By the 1860s, many more peo-ple could take regular hot baths, too, because gas heaters, and later electric heaters, were invented.

The treatment of sewage was improved by build-ing mammoth underground pipes that carried raw sewage far from the city for disposal. The city of Frankfurt, Germany, began its program for sewers with a lengthy public campaign featuring the slogan “from the toilet to the river in half an hour.”

Explaining Why did cities grow so quickly in the nineteenth century?

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Social Structure of Mass Society

European society settled into three broad social classes—upper, middle, and lower—but many subgroups existed within the three classes.

Reading Connection

Do you think of yourself as belonging to the large American middle class? Read to learn about how your great-grandparents might have viewed them-selves in an earlier time.

After 1871, most people enjoyed an improved standard of living. Their meals more often included meat, their clothes were more often “store-bought,” and they might even have a little money left over from their pay. Even so, poverty remained a serious problem.

Several classes can be identified in European soci-ety at this time. A very small number were very rich, many more were very poor, and substantial numbers belonged to different middle-class groups.

The New Elite

At the top of European society stood

a wealthy elite. This group made up only 5 percent of the population but controlled between 30 and

40 percent of the wealth. During the nineteenth cen-tury, the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants—the wealthy upper middle class—had joined with the landed aristocracy to form this new elite. Members of the elite, whether aristocratic or upper middle class in background, became leaders in the government and military.

Marriage also served to unite the two groups. Daughters of business tycoons gained aristocratic titles, and aristocratic heirs in financial difficulties gained new sources of cash. For example, when wealthy American Consuelo Vanderbilt married the British Duke of Marlborough, the new duchess brought approximately $10 million to the match.

The Middle Classes

The middle classes consisted

of a variety of groups. Below the upper middle class, which formed part of the new elite, was a group that included lawyers, doctors, members of the civil serv-ice, business managers, engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists. They made up a solid and comfortable middle-class group. Beneath them was a lower middle class. The lower middle class primarily consisted of small shopkeepers, traders, and prosper-ous farmers.

The sumptuous lifestyle of the upper middle class featured formal dress for meals of multiple courses prepared by a kitchen staff.

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This family scene is typical of the middle class. It is much less formal than the scene on page 304. The aproned woman is probably a servant; if she served in an upper-class family, she would not seem to be participating, as she is here.

The Working Classes

Below the middle classes

were the working classes, who made up almost 80 percent of Europe’s population. In eastern Europe, the working classes were often landholding peasants, farm laborers, or sharecroppers.

In western Europe, the working classes were urban-ized. They might be skilled artisans or semiskilled laborers, but most of them were unskilled. People with no skills were often day laborers or else domestic ser-vants. In Great Britain in 1900, one of every seven employed persons was a domestic servant, and most servants were women.

After 1870, urban workers began to live more com-fortably. Reforms had created better housing and cleaner streets. Their wages were rising—although wages were not rising as fast as production. And since the cost of consumer goods was less, workers were able to buy more than just food and housing. Now workers even had money to buy extra clothes or pay to entertain themselves in their few leisure hours. Because workers had organized and con-ducted strikes, they had won the 10-hour workday, with a Saturday afternoon off.

Identifying Name the major groups in the social structure of the late nineteenth century.

Reading Check The Second Industrial Revolution produced a new

group. These were the white-collar workers who were seen as fitting in between the lower middle class and the lower classes. White-collar workers included traveling salespeople, bookkeepers, tele-phone operators, department-store salespeople, and secretaries. Their pay was relatively low, but they hoped to join the middle class and were committed to middle-class values.

The middle classes shared a certain lifestyle with values that dominated nineteenth-century society. The members of the middle class liked to preach their values not only to their children, but to the upper and lower classes. This was especially evident in Victorian Britain, often considered the model of middle-class society. In part, this was because British prosperity had created a very large middle class.

One of the chief objectives was the middle-class

belief in hard work. Hard work was open to every-one and, in the minds of the middle classes, it was guaranteed to have positive results. They were also regular churchgoers who believed in Christian morality. Outward appearances were also very important to the middle classes. The etiquette book

The Habits of Good Society was a best-seller.

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Governments had also expanded their services, and this, too, created new job opportunities. Women might be secretaries and telephone operators in government offices or work in public educa-tion or health. A few men worked in these jobs, but most of them were filled by working-class and lower middle-working-class women. For these women, the jobs offered a chance at a better life.

Marriage and the Family

When women began working outside the home, it chal-lenged older ideals about women. For many people, that ideal was best expressed in the lines of Lord Tennyson’s The Princess,published in 1847:

“

Man for the field and woman for the hearth: Man for the sword and for the needle she: Man with the head and woman with the heart: Man to command and woman to obey. . . .

”

This view of the sexes was strengthened during the Industrial Revolution. As the main family wage earners, men worked outside the home. Women were left with the care of the family, and marriage was their only honorable or available career.

There was an important change, however. The number of children born to the average woman began to decline—the most significant development in the modern family. The decline in the birthrate was tied to improved economic conditions and to the increased use of birth control. In 1882, Europe’s first birth control clinic was founded in Amsterdam.

The family was the central institution of middle-class life. With fewer children, mothers were able to devote more time to child care and domestic leisure. The middle-class family fostered an ideal of togetherness. The Victorians created the family Christmas with its Yule log, tree, songs, and exchange of gifts. By the 1850s, Fourth of July cele-brations in the United States had changed from wild celebrations to family picnics.

The lives of working-class women were very dif-ferent from this middle-class ideal. Most working-class women had to earn money to help support their

Women worked as operators and secretaries at the Paris telephone exchange in 1904.

The Experiences of Women

Attitudes toward women changed as they moved into white-collar jobs, received more education, and began agitating for the vote.

Reading Connection

To what extent are jobs today stereotyped by gender? Read to learn about how women started to expand their options in the late 1800s.

In 1800, women were mainly defined by their family and household roles. Growing up, a girl received an education suited to becoming a mother and wife. As a married woman, she was legally inferior to her hus-band, as well as economically dependent on his income. In the course of the nineteenth century, women’s roles and experiences changed dramatically.

New Job Opportunities

During much of the

nine-teenth century, European men maintained the belief that women should remain at home to bear and nur-ture children and should not be allowed in the indus-trial workforce.

The Second Industrial Revolution, however, opened the door to new jobs for women. There were not enough men to fill the relatively low-paid white-collar jobs being created, so employers began to hire women. Many businesses, whether they were indus-trial plants or retail shops, needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, and salesclerks.

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families. Daughters in working-class families were expected to work until they married. After marriage, they had to work at small jobs at home to help in the raising of younger children. The childhood of a working-class girl or boy was essentially over by the age of nine or ten when many became apprentices or worked at odd jobs. ; _{(See page 773 to read an excerpt}

from an article on working women in the Primary Sources Library.)

Between 1890 and 1914, however, family patterns among the working class began to change. Higher-paying jobs in heavy industry and improvements in the standard of living made it possible for these families to depend on the income of the husbands alone.

By the early twentieth century, some working-class mothers could afford to stay at home just like middle-class women. Working-class families, too, began to save up to buy new consumer products like a sewing machine or a cast-iron stove.

Women’s Rights

Modern feminism, or the

move-ment for women’s rights, had its beginnings during the Enlightenment, when some women advocated equality for women based on the doctrine of natural rights. In the 1830s, some women in the United States and Europe began arguing that women had the right to divorce their husbands and to own property— at that time, the law gave the husband almost com-plete control over his wife’s property. These early efforts were not very successful, and married women in Britain did not win the right to own property until 1870.

The fight for property rights was only the begin-ning of the women’s movement. Some middle- and upper middle-class women fought for and gained access to universities, while others fought to enter professions and occupations dominated by men.

Women could not become doctors, so women with an interest in medicine became nurses. In Germany, Amalie Sieveking was a nursing pioneer who founded the Female Association for the Care of the Poor and Sick in Hamburg. More famous is the British nurse Florence Nightingale.Her efforts

dur-ing the Crimean War (1853–1856), combined with those of Clara Barton in the U.S. Civil War (1861–1865), transformed nursing into a profession of trained, middle-class “women in white.”

By the 1840s and 1850s, the movement for women’s rights expanded: Women now called for equal politi-cal rights. They believed that suffrage, the right to vote, was the key to improving their overall position.

In Europe, the British movement for women’s suf-frage led the way. The Women’s Social and Political Union, founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurstand

her daughters, quickly learned how to call attention to its demands by using publicity stunts. Its mem-bers, called “suffragettes” by the press, pelted gov-ernment officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, burned railroad cars, and smashed the windows of fashionable department stores. British police answered with arrests and brutal treatment of leading activists. These suffragists, as they were more generally known, had one basic aim: the right of women to full citizenship in the nation.

Before World War I, demands for women’s rights were being heard throughout Europe and the United States. At the time, women had the right to vote in only a few places—nations like Norway and Finland, and a few American states of the Far West. It took the dramatic upheaval of World War I to make male-dominated governments give in on this basic issue.

Identifying What was the basic aim of the suffragists?

Reading Check

Shown below are Emmeline Pankhurst, her daughters, and a fellow suffragist. Why do you think women such as these had to fight so hard and long to obtain the right to vote?

History

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Changes in Education and Leisure

As a result of industrialization, the levels of education rose, and people’s lives were more clearly divided into periods of work and leisure.

Reading Connection

How would our society change if a college education was required? Read to learn about the era when the government required an elementary education.

Universal education was the result of the mass societies of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Before that time, education was reserved mostly for the elite and the wealthier middle class. Between 1870 and 1914, most Western governments financed a system of primary education. Boys and girls between 6 and 12 years of age were required to attend these elementary schools.

Why did Western nations make a commitment to education at this time? One reason was that the Sec-ond Industrial Revolution helped create jobs that required a higher level of education than in the past. Boys and girls with an elementary education were able to work in white-collar jobs, any job that did not require work clothes. They might be clerks in a bank or a railway, or a teacher or nurse.

A second reason that governments backed public education was political. Since more people were going to vote, they needed to be able to read, and they needed to know about citizenship. Primary schools helped to instill patriotism. In fact, during this period, many people felt less attached to their

town or region and more attached to their nation. This was a big change in people’s loyalties and in how they identified themselves.

Compulsory elementary education created a demand for teachers, and most of them were women. Many men saw teaching as a part of women’s “natu-ral role” to be the nurturers of children. Women were also paid lower salaries than men, which in itself was a strong incentive for states to set up teacher-training schools for women. The first women’s colleges were really teacher-training schools.

Better education led immediately to a correspond-ing increase in literacy,or the ability to read. By 1900,

most adults in western and central Europe could read, but the story was very different where govern-ments did not promote education. Only about 20 per-cent of adults in Serbia and Russia could read.

Once literacy expanded, a mass media developed. Newspapers sprang up to appeal to this new reading public. In London, papers like the Evening News

(1881) and the Daily Mail (1896) sold millions of

copies each day. They simplified their reporting and picked stories to appeal to people who read newspa-pers to entertain themselves after a long day of work. Newspapers for the general public were often sensa-tionalistic—they peppered their columns with gos-sip, colorful anecdotes, and the gruesome details of violent crimes.

People read this new kind of newspaper in their leisure time. There were other new forms of leisure, too—amusement parks, dance halls, and organized team sports, for example.

CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy

In the late nineteenth century, holiday travel was widespread. As the presence of dogs suggests, these travelers were returning to London from a grouse-hunting holiday in Scotland.

Chr

isties

, London/SuperStoc

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These forms of leisure were new in several ways. First, leisure was now seen as what people did for fun after work. In an older era, work and leisure time were not so clearly defined. During the era of cottage industry, family members might chat or laugh while they worked on cloth in their homes. Now free time was more closely scheduled and more often confined to evening hours, weekends, and perhaps a week in the summer.

Second, the new forms of leisure tended to be pas-sive, not participatory. Instead of doing a folk dance on the town square, a young woman sat in a Ferris wheel and was twirled around by a huge mecha-nized contrivance. Instead of playing a game of tug-of-war at the town fair, a young man sat on the sidelines at a cricket match and cheered his favorite team to victory.

A third change in leisure during this era was that people more often paid for many of their leisure activ-ities. It cost money to ride a merry-go-round or Ferris wheel at Coney Island. This change was perhaps the most dramatic of all. Business entrepreneurs created amusement parks and professional sports teams in order to make a profit. Whatever would sell, they would promote.

Explaining What motivated governments to provide public education?

Reading Check

Checking for Understanding

1. Vocabulary Define: innovation, objec-tive, feminism, literacy.

2. People Identify: Florence Nightingale, Emmeline Pankhurst.

Reviewing Big Ideas

3. Explainwhat is meant by the term universal education.Why did the Industrial Revolution help to promote it?

Critical Thinking

4. Contextualizing

Why have certain jobs, such as elemen-tary teaching and nursing, historically been filled by women?

5. Summarizing Information Use a graphic organizer like the one below to summarize the results of urban reforms.

Analyzing Visuals

6. Examinethe clothing worn by the women in the photos on pages 304, 305, and 307. Do you think there is a connection between changes in women’s dress and changes in their political rights?

CAHI 3

7. Persuasive Writing The feminist movement changed the role of women. In an essay, argue whether these changes had a positive or neg-ative impact on society.

CA10WA2.3 Urban Reform

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World

History—Modern Times,go to and

click on Study Central.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

Study Central

HISTORY

A poster advertising the newest sports craze

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S

ports were by no means a new activity in the late nineteenth century. Soccer games had been played by peasants and workers, and these games had often been bloody and even deadly. However, in the late nineteenth century, sports became strictly organized. The English Football Association (founded in 1863) and the American Bowling Congress (founded in 1895), for example, provided strict rules and officials to enforce them.

The new sports were not just for leisure or fun. Like other forms of middle-class recreation, they were intended to provide excellent training, especially for youth. The participants could not only develop individ-ual skills but also acquire a sense of team-work useful for military service.

These characteristics were already evi-dent in British schools in the 1850s and 1860s. Such schools as Harrow and Loretto placed organized sports at the center of education. At Loretto, for example, educa-tion was supposed to instill “First—Charac-ter. Second—Physique. Third—Intelligence. Fourth—Manners. Fifth—Information.”

The new team sports rapidly became professionalized as well. The English Football Association, mentioned above, regulated professional soccer. In the United States, the first national associa-tion to recognize professional baseball players was formed in 1863. By 1900, the National League and the American League had complete control over professional baseball.

The New Team Sports

This photo of the Eton rugby team dates from the early 1900s. The sport is said to have originated in the 1820s at Rugby, one of England’s famed public schools—schools which are, in fact, private. Eton, another famous public school, is the oldest public school, founded in the 1400s. Rugby remains pop-ular in England, but in the United States, football is the popular game.

➤

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C

ONNECTING TO THE

P

AST

1. Describing What did sports offer middle-class men of the late nineteenth century?

2. Evaluating Why do you think spectator sports became such a big business?

3. Writing about History Write a brief essay comparing the educational goals at your school with those at Loretto. What are the differences and similarities?

Croquet was popular in the nineteenth cen-tury. In the United States, there was some-thing of a croquet craze in the 1860s. As the image suggests, it could be a sedate game for women to play, although some versions were more aggressive.

➤

In the late 1800s, women were thought too delicate to play vigorous sports. Eventually sports began to appear at some women’s colleges and girls’ public schools in England. This image is from a 1914 foot-ball (soccer) match.

➤

Ballparks were built once fans had to pay admis-sion to watch a game. In the United States, base-ball was so popular that more than 1.5 million fans watched American League games during the 1901 season.

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The National State and

Democracy

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section Preview

Democracy triumphed in Western Europe, authoritarianism prevailed in the East, the United States became an indus-trial powerhouse, and the European powers prepared for war.

•Growing prosperity after 1850 con-tributed to the expansion of democracy in Western Europe. (p. 313)

•Although Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Russia instituted elections and par-liaments, real power remained in the hands of the emperors and elites. (p. 315)

•In the United States, the Second Indus-trial Revolution produced a wealthy society, and wealth was far more con-centrated than in Europe (p. 316)

•After firing Bismarck, the German emperor pursued aggressive foreign policies that divided Europe into two hostile alliance systems. (p. 317)

•When Ottoman control over the Balkans weakened, Russia and Austria competed for power there, while Balkan peoples worked for independence. (p. 317)

Content Vocabulary

ministerial responsibility, Duma

Academic Vocabulary

crucial, compensation

People to Identify

Otto von Bismarck, William II, Francis Joseph, Nicholas II, Queen Liliuokalani

Reading Objectives

1. List the most serious problems in the American society of the time. 2. Trace the issues that lay behind the

Balkan crises.

Reading Strategy

Summarizing Information As you read this section, complete a diagram listing the countries in each alliance.

California Standards in This Section

10.3:

10.3.2:

Examine how scientific and technological changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pas-teur, Thomas Edison).

10.4.1:

Describe the rise of industrial economies and their link to imperialism and colonialism (e.g., the role played by national security and strategic advantage; moral issues raised by the search for

national hegemony, Social Darwinism, and the missionary impulse; material issues such as land, resources, and technology).

10.5:

Students analyze the causes and course of the First World War.

10.5.1:

Analyze the arguments for entering into war pre-sented by leaders from all sides of the Great War and the role of political and economic rivalries, ethnic and ideological conflicts, domestic discon-tent and disorder, and propaganda and national-ism in mobilizing the civilian population in support of “total war.”

Triple Alliance

1882

Triple Entente

1907

1882

Triple Alliance created

1900

Labour Party emerges in Great Britain

1867

Dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary created

1907

Triple Entente formed

1870

France establishes the Third Republic

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Western Europe and Political

Democracy

Growing prosperity after 1850 contributed to the expansion of democracy in Western Europe.

Reading Connection

Does a change in economic status help minorities in the United States increase their political power? Read to learn about the political advances of European workers in the later 1800s.

By the late nineteenth century in European nations, especially in Western Europe, democracy was becoming well established. These nations had already had representative government, but now the groups who were represented included the lower classes. The advance in democracy was underscored by comparing it to the situation in Eastern Europe and Russia. In Russia there was still no parliament at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Russia never did achieve true representative gov-ernment at this time. Instead the Bolshevik Revolution occurred in 1917, and a communist state was declared in 1918.

In the West, however, there were many signs that democracy was expanding. First, laws that granted universal male suffrage were passed. Second, the chief executive officer, usually called the prime minister, was responsible to the popularly elected legislative

body, not to the king or president. This principle is called ministerial responsibilityand it is crucialfor

democracy.

Mass political parties were another sign of expanding democracy. As more and more men, and later women, could vote, parties had to create larger organizations and find ways to appeal to many who were now part of the political process.

Great Britain

By 1871, Great Britain had long had a

working two-party parliamentary system. For roughly the next 50 years, the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party alternated in power. Both parties were led by a ruling class composed of aristocratic landowners and a wealthy upper middle class.

Universal male suffrage came about because Liber-als and Conservatives competed with one another to win popular support. Laws of 1867 and 1884 increased the number of adult males who could vote. In 1918, as World War I was ending, another reform law passed which gave the vote to all men over the age of 21 as well as to most women who were over the age of 30.

With political democracy established, social reforms for the working class soon followed. In Britain, the working class supported the Liberals, but the Liberals were worried they would lose this support. Trade unions were growing, and they favored changes in the economic system that the middle classes did not like. In 1900, a new party—the Labour Party, which dedi-cated itself to the interests of workers—emerged.

The Liberals held the government from 1906 to 1914. To retain the support of the workers, they cooperated with the small Labour Party and also enacted many basic social reforms. The National Insurance Act of 1911, for example, provided benefits for workers when they were sick or lost their job.

Czar Nicholas II

On January 22, 1905, a group of peaceful demon-strators in the Russian capital tried to present a peti-tion of grievances to Czar Nicholas II. One witness described the result:

“

We were not more than thirty yards from the soldiers, being separated from them only by the bridge over the Tarakanovskii Canal, when sud-denly, without any warning and without a moment’s delay, was heard the dry crack of many rifle-shots. . . . A little boy of ten years, who was carrying a church lantern, fell pierced by a bullet. Both the [black]smiths who guarded me were killed, as well as all those who were carrying the icons and banners; and all these emblems now lay scattered on the snow. The soldiers were actu-ally shooting into the courtyards of the adjoining houses, where the crowd tried to find refuge.

”

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Other reforms provided a small pension for workers over age 70 and compensation for workers if they

were injured on the job.

France

During this general period, politics in France

was not stable. The Second Empire government of Louis-Napoleon collapsed when the Prussians defeated France in 1871. In an atmosphere of bitter defeat, the French set up the Third French Republic, but it took five years for the republican constitution to be proclaimed.

The new government had a president and a legis-lature of two houses. The upper house, or Senate, was conservative. High-ranking officials elected its members, who served for nine-year periods. All adult males, however, voted for the members of the lower house, the Chamber of Deputies.

The powers of the president were not well defined in the constitution. A premier, or prime minister, actually led the government and there was ministe-rial responsibility. France failed to develop a strong parliamentary system, however. Since there were as many as a dozen political parties, the premier had to depend on coalitions to stay in power. Shifting political alliances led to frequent changes of

gov-314 CHAPTER 5 Mass Society and Democracy

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V ol_ga R. SPAIN FRANCE ITALY PORTUGAL UNITED KINGDOM MONTENEGRO ALGERIA MOROCCO TUNISIA BULGARIA ROMANIA AUSTRIA HUNGARY CRIMEA SWITZ. LUX. BELG. NETH. POLAND RUSSIA NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK GREECE Sardinia Crete Cyprus Corsica Sicily Madrid Lisbon London Paris Marseille Venice Rome Naples Munich Berlin Dresden Prague Vienna Budapest Warsaw Copenhagen Moscow St. Petersburg Stockholm Kiev Odessa Constantinople Sinope Athens

Europe, 1871

Austria-Hungary French Empire German Empire Kingdom of Italy Ottoman Empire Russian Empire

Various empires dominated the European political scene in the late nineteenth century.

1. Interpreting Maps Which three empires extend beyond the boundaries shown on this map? 2. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer your

own question about how the geographic relationships shown on this map might result in major conflicts, such as the impending world war.

ernment. Nevertheless, by 1914, the Third Republic commanded the loyalty of most voters.

Italy

Italy had emerged by 1870 as a united national

state. The nation had little sense of unity, however. In a sense there were two nations because a great gulf separated the poverty-stricken south from the indus-trialized north. Constant turmoil between labor and industry further weakened national unity. Wide-spread corruption among government officials pre-vented the government from dealing with these problems. Universal male suffrage was not granted until 1912, but this reform did little to stop corruption and weakness in the government.

Summarizing What is the principle of ministerial responsibility?

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Central and Eastern Europe:

The Old Order

Although Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Russia instituted elections and parliaments, real power remained in the hands of emperors and elites.

Reading Connection

Can a country have a constitution but not be a true democracy? Read to learn about the political structures in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1800s.

In Central and Eastern Europe, governments were more conservative than in Western Europe. Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Russia were less industrialized, and education was not widely avail-able. It was easier, therefore, for the old ruling groups to continue to dominate politics.

Germany

Germany became a united state in 1871

under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck and Emperor William I. The constitution of imperial Ger-many provided for a two-house legislature. In the upper house, or Reichsrat, there were representatives appointed by the 26 princely states. The lower house, or Reichstag, was elected by universal male suffrage. There were two constitutional features that made the German Empire less democratic than nations like France and Great Britain. First, the upper house was a conservative body, and it could veto actions by the Reichstag. Second, government ministers were responsible not to the legislature, but to the emperor. The emperor also controlled the armed forces, for-eign policy, and the bureaucracy. Bismarck, the Ger-man prime minister, or chancellor, was determined to preserve the power of his king. He directed his policies toward preventing real democracy in the nation.

By the reign of William II,emperor from 1888 to

1918, Germany had become the strongest power in Europe. With the expansion of industry and cities came demands for greater democracy.

Conservative forces, the landowning nobility and big industrialists, tried to blunt the movement for democracy by supporting a strong foreign policy. They believed that expansion abroad would divert people from pursuing political reform. At the same time, it would increase their profits.

Austro-Hungarian Empire

In 1867, the Austrian

Empire became the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The constitution of this “dual monarchy” gave greater

recognition to Hungary. In theory, it also set up a par-liamentary system with ministerial responsibility. In reality, the emperor, Francis Joseph, largely

ignored this system. He appointed and dismissed his own ministers and issued decrees, or laws, when the parliament was not in session.

The empire remained troubled by conflicts among its many ethnic groups. A German minority gov-erned the empire but felt increasingly threatened by Czechs, Poles, and other Slavic groups. There were Czech, Polish, and Slavic representatives in the impe-rial parliament, and they continually made speeches demanding their own states.

Unlike Austria, Hungary had a parliament that worked, even though it was controlled by Magyar landowners who dominated the peasants and ethnic minority groups. Because Emperor Francis Joseph no longer had any say in inte