THE INFLUENCES OF THE REGIMES AUTHORITIES ON THEWOMEN’S SOCIAL ROLES AS SEEN IN THE LIFE OF TWO CHINESE WOMEN
IN JUNG CHANG’S WILD SWANS
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Intan Wahyu Kusuma Student Number: 06 1214 160
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
i
THE INFLUENCES OF THE REGIMES AUTHORITIES ON THEWOMEN’S SOCIAL ROLES AS SEEN IN THE LIFE OF TWO CHINESE WOMEN
IN JUNG CHANG’S WILD SWANS
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Intan Wahyu Kusuma Student Number: 06 1214 160
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 6 December 2010
The Writer,
v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Intan Wahyu Kusuma
Nomor mahasiswa : 061214160
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE INFLUENCES OF THE REGIMES AUTHORITIES ON THE WOMEN’S SOCIAL ROLES AS SEEN IN THE LIFE OF TWO CHINESE WOMEN IN JUNG CHANG’S WILD SWANS
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 6 November 2010 Yang menyatakan
vi
ABSTRACT
Kusuma, Intan Wahyu. (2010): The Influences of the Regimes Authority on the
Women’s Social Roles as Seen in the Life of Two Chinese Women in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program,
Sanata Dharma University.
Wild Swans is an autobiographical family history by a Chinese writer Jung Chang. It contains a biography of the three female generations of Chang's family: Yu-fang, her grandmother, De-hong, her mother and finally Chang’s own autobiography. The novel describes the life of the Chinese women during particular different regimes that hold a power in China from Confucian, Manchu, Kuomintang and Communists era.
This study aims at revealing the issues that are discussed. They are (1) How are Chinese women’s social roles reflected in the lives of Yu-fang and De-hong in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans? (2) How does the regimes authority influence the women social roles as seen in the life of the two Chinese women in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans?
To analyze the problems, the writer applies a socio-cultural historical approach because this study focuses on how regimes authorities influence women’s social roles during some particular periods. This approach is the most appropriate one because here the writer tries to reveal the women’s social roles, in order to examine how a regime authority influences the women’s social roles during particular periods.
To conclude, regimes authorities have a big influence to the development of women’s social roles. Based on Yu-fang’s experiences, a regime authority constrains women’s space to think and to develop. She had lived during the transition time when China was transforming a dynasty into a republic. The philosophy and doctrine of Confucianism was really viscous. It underlies the key aspect in functioning the women’s social roles seen by Yu-fang’s experiences. It can be concluded that Chinese women in this period are secondary to men.
From De-hong’s evidences, women have limited education and chance to join a party because regimes need women’s participation in the military. She had lived during several attempts of political reformation and multiple attempted colonizations of China. It can be concluded that Chinese women as portrayed by De-hong have improved their roles towards equality with men.
vii
ABSTRAK
Kusuma, Intan Wahyu. (2010): The Influences of the Regimes Authorities on the
Women’s Social Roles as Seen in the Life of Two Chinese Women in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris,
Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Wid Swans adalah autobiografi sejarah keluarga yang ditulis oleh penulis Cina Jung Chang. Wild Swans berisikan sebuah biografi tiga generasi wanita dari keluarga Chang yaitu Yu-fang, neneknya, De-hong, ibunya, dan terakhir biografi Chang sendiri. Novel itu mendeskripsikan kehidupan wanita Cina yang hidup selama beberapa rezim berbeda, yang menguasai China dari era Konfusian, Manchu, Kuomintang, dan Komunis.
Skripsi ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap isu-isu yang didiskusikan, yaitu (1) Bagaimana peran social wanita Cina direfleksikan dalam kehidupan Yu-fang dan De-hong di novel Jung Chang Wild Swans? (2) Bagaimana kekuasaan rezim mempengaruhi peran sosial wanita dilihat dari kehidupan dua wanita Cina di novel Jung Chang Wild Swans?
Untuk menganalisa masalah tersebut, penulis menggunakan pendekatan socio-cultural historical karena skripsi ini fokus pada bagaimana kekuasaan rezim mempengaruhi peran sosial wanita selama periode tertentu. Pendekatan ini paling tepat karena penulis mencoba untuk mengungkap peran sosial wanita untuk memeriksa bagaimana kekuasaan sebuah rezim mempengaruhi peran sosial wanita selama periode tertentu.
Kesimpulannya, kekuasaan rezim mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat pada perkembangan peran sosial wanita. Berdasarkan pengalaman yang dialami olehYu-fang, kekuasaan sebuah rezim membatasi ruang gerak wanita untuk berpikir dan berkembang. Dia hidup pada zaman transisi ketika Cina berubah dari bentuk dinasti menuju republik. Filosofi dan doktrin Konfusianism sangatlah kental. Hal itu mendasari kunci aspek dalam memfungsikan peran sosial wanita dilihat dari pengalaman-pengalaman Yu-fang. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa wanita Cina di periode ini sekunder dari laki-laki.
Dari bukti-bukti De-hong, pendidikan dan pilihan untuk ikut serta dalam sebuah partai wanita dibatasi karena rezim membutuhkan peran serta wanita dalam militer. Dia hidup selama beberapa usaha reformasi politik dan penjajahan di Cina. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa wanita Cina sebagaimana digambarkan oleh De-hong telah sanggup meningkatkan perannya menuju persamaan dengan laki-laki.
viii
PAGE OF DEDICATIONS
I dedicate this thesis to Allah SWT,
My Great Grandmother
My Grandparents
My Beloved Parents and Family
“Metamorphosing into a Meaningful Life”
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank Allah SWT for His love and blessing. I
do believe that He has given me strength so that I am capable of finishing it. A
great many persons, institutions, and libraries have given their help and
cooperation in preparing this thesis. Therefore, I am obliged to express my
gratitude to those who had made the writing of this thesis possible.
I am most grateful to Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum., as my sponsor
for having spent countless hours reading this thesis and also for her counsel and
support. Her dedication has enabled me to finish this thesis.
I also want to express my great honor to Bimo Yuwono for becoming my
proof reader and for the suggestions and kindness to me. My great honor also
goes to Finn Ynguesson and Chris Alkire for giving their shares, experiences,
and helps in fixing my grammatical mistakes.
I would like to express my gratitude to all lecturers of English Education
Study Program who have given me valuable and everlasting knowledge. The
same expression goes to the secretariat staff, Mba Dhanniek and Mba Tari, for
helping me in the administration procedures.
My greatest gratitude is mostly addressed to my beloved parents, Joko
x
for their everlasting love, guidance, and attention. I thank my great grandmother,
Mbah Yut in heaven who gave me her soul and dedication to work and struggle
hard ever. I also thank my sisters and brother, Dinar, Chintya, and Putut. What a
wonderful family I have.
For my beloved friends Eka, Ria, Yeni, Yuni, Novi, Lia, Endru, Niken,
Zulvan, Timtim, Kumoro and many who cannot be mentioned one by one, they
are the stars in my heart. I thank my friends for being my lifetime partners. I
thank my friends in LEAF course, Eka, Ria, Netty, Ziko, Fajar, and Dewi. They
all have accompanied me in my sad and happy time. Thanks for listening,
criticizing, and supporting me. I thank my boarding mates at MKU. It has been
almost 5 years. What an incredible time I have.
The last but not least, my special thank goes especially to Fauzi Usman
Ardhi, who always accompanies me even in difficult time. I thank him for the
great love, support, and understanding. His love and encouragement have enabled
me to finish writing this thesis.
I would like to thank all people who I cannot mention their names, for
their support and prayer so that I can finish this thesis. May Allah SWT grant
them with peace, joy, and happiness.
xi
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……….. iii
ABSTRACT ………... vi A. Background of the Study ………1
B. Research Problems ………. 3
C. Objectives of the Study ……….. 3
D. Benefits of the Study ……….. 3
E. Definition of Terms ……….... 4
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theory of Socio-Cultural Historical Approach ………. 7
B. Review on the Social Roles of Chinese Women ……….. 9
1. The Confucian Family System ……… 9
2. Foot Binding and Concubine ……….. 11
3. Manchu Marriage System of Etiquette ……… 14
4. Education for the Chinese girls (under Japanese Government) ……….. 15
5. Women and Leadership in the Chinese Communist Movement, 1921-1945 ………... 15
6. Revolutionary Marriage ……….. 17
xii A. The Chinese Women’s Social Roles as Represented in the Lives of Two Characters in Wild Swans ……….. 24
1. Chinese Women’s Social Roles as Represented in the Life of Yu Fang (1909-1938) ……….. 25
a) Foot Binding ………... 26
b)Concubine ……… 29
c)Forbidden Marriage ………. 33
2. Chinese Women’s Social Roles as Represented in the Life of De Hong (1931-1951 ) ……….. 35
a)Education under Japanese Government ………... 35
b)Becoming Student Leader and Communist Underground ……… 37
c)Revolutionary Marriage ……… 39
B. The Influences of the Regimes Authorities on the Women’s Social Roles Development ………... 43
1. Confucianism (Transitional Period between a Dinasty and Republic) 1908-1938 ……….... 43
a) Foot Binding ……… 44
b) Concubine ……… 46
c) Forbidden Marriage ………. 48
2. Communist Regime 1931-1951 ……… 51
xiii
b) Becoming Student Leader and Communist Underground ……….. 52
c) Revolutionary Marriage ………. 54
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusion………. 57
B. Suggestions ……… 59
1. Suggestions for the future researchers ………. 59
2. Suggestions for the teaching English using Literary Works ……….. 60
a) The implementation in Teaching Extensive Reading II ……… 61
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
Biography of Jung Chang ………. 66
APPENDIX 2
Summary of Wild Swans ………69
APPENDIX 3
Lesson plan and handouts to teach Extensive Reading II ………..77
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of five parts. They include background of the study,
research problems, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of
terms. In the background of the study, I discuss the reason for choosing the topic. In
the research problems section of this study, I give a general description of the
problems encountered in my research. Objectives of the study explain the overall
goals of the study. Benefits of the study give an explanation about who can benefit
from the study. The last part of this study discusses the definition of various terms
related to the study.
A. Background of the Study
Reading literary works can enrich our minds with knowledge. Literary works,
such as novel portrays the reality of social life. Wellek and Warren state that stories
are the imitation of the varied experiences of human beings, the imitation of our life,
including human relationships (34). Many phenomena that can be found in daily life
imitated in literary works. From literary works we can also find the point of view of
the author. Literary works can also be perceived as a means of communication
between an author and the readers. They show us author’s perspectives about the
issues behind the story. Moreover, an author usually writes stories based on his or her
Novels, genre of literary works, also imitate our daily life. From novels we
can observe the point of view of the author about various issues. Hence, from novels
we are able to find a reflection of life based on the author’s perception.
Since literary works portray the phenomena in our life, different kinds of
phenomena, such as falling in love, sadness, and even political and military turmoil
are commonly found in literary works. Those phenomena are usually felt and
experienced individually by the character(s) in the story.
In this undergraduate thesis, I have chosen a novel which was written based
on the author’s experiences and those of her family in facing political and military
turmoil during different regimes. It presents how the three Chinese women on
different generations struggle in the context of turbulent events and how each of them
is likely positioning themselves as a woman.
Jung Chang’s Wild Swans, for instance, is in the genre of historical fiction,
and attempts to address fictional narrative means. Wild Swans’ changing
authoritarian portrays the regimes in China in the twentieth century. The novel
chronicles lives of the three Chinese women who experienced gender turbulation
because of the influences of the regimes authorities that occupied power of their
country, are depicted in details. The novel attempts to show how they face the
everyday changes created by each regime and how the regimes’ oppression influences
their role as a woman in society.
It is interesting to discover how the different regimes influence on the lives of
before; I decided to compare the gender experience in terms of analyzing the
influences of the regimes’ authority on the role of the two Chinese women across two
generations.
B. Research Problems
Based on the background stated above, there are two problems that will be
discussed in this study. They are:
1. How are Chinese women’s social roles reflected in the lives of Yu-fang and
De-hong in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans?
2. How does the regimes authority influence the women social roles as seen in the
life of the two Chinese women in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans?
C. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are first, to discuss how the two Chinese women at
different generations face the everyday rules made because of each changing regime.
The second objective, this study aims to identify how the regimes authority has
greater influence on their social roles as women.
D. Benefits of the Study
There are two benefits of this study. First, this study hopes to share
Swans. This study can give additional information for readers who want to study
literature especially Chinese history as written about by Jung Chang.
The second benefit of the study is that it discovers something new related to
Jung Chang’s works. This study provides new information about the historical
changes of women’s social roles. The research gives additional references and
information for future researchers.
E. Definition of terms
To avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding, it is necessary to define the
terms used in this study.
1. Influences
In NTC’s Dictionary of Literary Terms, influences refer to “power to have an
effect on the way someone or something develops, behaves, or thinks” (933). This
study discusses the influences or effects of the regimes authorities’ development
and behavior toward the women’s social roles of the main characters in Jung
Chang’s Wild Swans.
2. Regimes Authorities
The first is “regimes”. In politics, a regime is the form of government. It is the
set of rules, cultural or social norms, etc. that regulate the operation of government
and its interactions with society (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regime). Webster's
government. In this study, each regime has different influences on the Chinese
women of different generations.
The second term is “authorities”. In the Dictionary of Sociology and Related
Sciences, authority refers to a form of power either which is a function of
legitimate position of knowledge, or respect (power being defined as the ability of
a person to have their will be obeyed). Hence, power whose possession by given
persons or groups is willingly accepted by relevant others (18). This study talks
about the authority of many groups and authorizations which hold power over the
areas and society in China.
The third is “regimes authorities”. From the definitions of regimes and
authorities above, we can derive the meaning of regimes authorities that is the
regulation of different governments that give a legitimate power to the society.
This study explains the influences of different regimes who took a power in China
from the Confucian, Manchu, and Communists periods.
3. Women’s Social Roles
The first term is women. Based on the Dictionary of Sociology by Ross,
“women refer to the feminine half of humanity. Specifically, women are mature
human beings of the female sex. In the abstract, women are a generalized total of
all feminine traits"(339). Women in this study are Chinese women. And the object
of this study is the two Chinese women of different generations as the main
The second term is social roles. In the Dictionary of Sociology and Related
Sciences, social refers to “reciprocal relations of interacting human being, either as
individuals or groups. As a comprehensive term, social includes all the phenomena
which are the subject matter of sociology” (275). Then, the word role refers to the
function or expected behavior of an individual in a group, usually defined by the
group or the culture (262). This study determines the social roles of the women
portrayed in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans. Meaning that the expected and function
behaviors of women in Chinese are focused on.
From the considerations above, we can conclude that women’s social roles in
this study means are specified from their social roles at different periods and
regimes. The main objective is to know how the regimes authorities influence the
7 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents some theories which are relevant to the analysis of the
novel. This chapter consists of three sections to be discussed: review on theory of
critical approach, review of the social roles of Chinese women, and theoretical
framework. Review on theory of critical approach explains the socio-cultural
historical approach that is applied in this study. Review on the social roles of
Chinese women consists of five main chapters that influence the stages on the
Chinese women social roles. Theoretical framework explains how the theories are
applied in the analysis of this study.
A. Review on Theory of Socio-Cultural Historical Approach
As the imitation of life, literary works are rich with values. This makes
people give their response based on their own understanding about the works (Guerin
vii). In giving their responses to literary works, people apply an approach or
approaches depending on what they focus on. Roughberger offers five approaches
that can be implemented in the study of literature. They are “formalist, biographical,
socio-cultural historical, mythopoeia, and psychological approach” (3). Since this
study applied socio-cultural historical approach, the following explanation will only
According to Rohrberger and Woods, the critics whose major interest is the
socio-cultural historical approach. It agrees that society will influence the author in
making literary works. They suggest two important things, “First, literature is not
created in a vacuum, and second, that literature embodies ideas significant to culture
that produced it” (9). It shows that whether they realize it or not, the environment
really affects the author and then literature which is created by the author also gives
something to the society. Society produces the culture, society also makes history,
and literature comes from a society. It means that society, culture, and history have to
be counted in scrutinizing a literary work. In other words, it can be said that society,
culture, history, and a literary work are connected each other.
Socio-cultural historical approach has some functions. As stated in Theory of
Literature by Wellek and Warren,” it is the literature that had a function as a faithful
recording of the features when the literary work was made”. In addition, he argued
that “literature preserved the most picturesque and expressive representation of
manners; literature was primarily a treasury of costumes and customs, and also a
source book for the history of civilization” (102-103).
In socio-cultural historical approach, literary works have the same function
as a history book that is for the source of information about what happened in the
past, but literary works are special because the author is able to portray the condition
artistically. Besides, according to Wilbur Scott “art is not created in a vacuum” (646)
meaning that the author is influenced by many things (such as his environment,
Therefore, socio-cultural historical approach is very helpful to be applied in this study
since there must be relation between author’s life history and his/her work.
B. Review on the Social Roles of Chinese Women
1. The Confucian Family System
As said in The Modern Book of China by McAleavy, Confucianism became
the most pervasive doctrine to promote the belief in women’s “natural place” (5).
Confucius himself did not inherently denigrate women, although he placed them at
the lower end of the patriarchal family structure. Yet, through the ages the assumption
that men’s and women’s social places and expected behaviors were quite distinct, was
based on Confucian hierarchical precepts. These precepts were reinforced by
prescriptive advice manuals like Lessons for Girls. Written by the female historian
Ban Zhoa (Han dynasty, ca. 45-120 C.E.), Lessons became one of China’s most
durable sources of advice about female behavior. One excerpt tells women to “yield
to others; let her put others first, herself last” (5). Confucian family system is a
doctrine that regulated every aspect of human activity and formed the basis of entire
structure of the state. It was said that “the Feudal principalities were seen as the prime
need of mankind to resolve the problems of peaceful coexistence and harmony with
the universe. There are several principles which occur in the Confucian family
In addition, Moise defines, “The general thrust of Confucianism was the
importance of proper human relationships. Subordinates should be reverent and
obedient towards their superiors, while superiors should be benevolent and just” (12).
Therefore, Bushnel also supported that power and family status were
considered to be very important during the early 1900’s. It can be understood that
Chinese women are placed to be passive, obedient and oppressed.
McAleavy described that Confucian principle is to serve parents during their
life and when they die to bury them and to sacrifice to them.” Not to have a son was
the most heinous of all forms of unfillial conduct. Marriage was thus a moral
obligation and a failure by the wife to give their husband a heir was a strong reason
for husband if they could afford it, to try and supply the deficiency from a concubine.
Last opportunity, husbands at least adopt a successor who could sustain the part of a
son” (6).
McAleavy also explained “the Confucian ideal that families should be
undivided through the generations, contributing by their labors to their joint support.
Such a group would retain its identity although its members were constantly
changing, for, apart from birth, and death, daughters would leave the family to marry
while other girls came into it as brides” (8).
McAleavy added that wife and concubine were distinct not merely in degree
but in kind, and as concubine was limited in practice to a relatively small part of the
McAleavy concluded that the Confucian System of the family had salient
features, the veneration of ancestors, respect towards parents and seniors, and desire
for sons, and was common to all classes of Chinese society (10).
2. Foot Binding and Concubine
The litany of the individual’s emancipation from the old society may well
begin with the emancipation of women. Twitchett and Fairbank clearly describes, “
… Their degraded status was well symbolized by the custom of foot-binding which
crippled them from childhood, made them less effective as manual workers, and yet
was practiced so widely among the Han Chinese peasantry … ”(26).
Crites explains, “The origin of foot binding that it began late in the T'ang
Dynasty (618-906) and it gradually spread through the upper class during the Song
Dynasty (960-1297). During the Ming period (1368-1644) and the Ching Dynasty
(1644-1911) the custom of foot binding spread through the overwhelming majority of
the Chinese population until it was finally outlawed in the 1911 Revolution of Sun
Yat-Sen.”
Furthermore, Kiat and Sudarno stated in their translated book “China
Selayang Pandang” that:
kesenian dan pemerintahan. Tak ada seorangpunjang dapat mengatakan. Bilamana dan untuk apa kebiasaan itu diadakan, tetapi sedjak dinastie Tang dan Sung sampai djaman sekarang perempuan Tionghoa mengikat kakinja (191).
As far as we know, the habit of binding girls’ feet to be smaller was started at that time. It was caused by the glamorous and luxurious life in the kingdom; so that the girls who were eager to be prosperous. The civil were also afraid of letting girls go outside and wanting the status similar with man in the education and government administration area. No one can tell why and for what this habit was done, but since Tang Dinasty and Sung until now, Chinese girls are binding their feet (191).
O’Neil added that foot-binding also had the effect of restricting a woman’s
movements and advertising the status of her family, since such a woman was
incapable of working in the fields (94). In addition, Bushnel states that power and
family status were considered to be very important during the early 1900’s.
Meanwhile, Moise adds, “The status differentiation in Chinese society extended to
family relationship …. As children, most of them had to bind their feet – to wear tight
wrappings which prevented the feet from growing to normal size, and distorted the
skeletal structure ...” (28). Moise also defines that the only way a woman could attain
a position of power and security was through a relationship with a male (28).
McAleavy added that wife and concubine were distinct not merely in degree
but in kind, and as concubine was limited in practice to a relatively small part of the
population (10). In addition, Buchnel states that during this particular time period,
women were not highly regarded. A woman’s role was to be married off and to live a
In Western Views of Chinese Women, the origin of foot binding may not be
clear, however the results or after affects are apparent. Foot binding stopped
concubines and wives of the rich from straying or running away from beatings.
“Confucian teachings at this time stressed the superior status of men over women as a
basic element of social order and this was certainly an effective method of restraint”.
Western Views of Chinese Women assumes that this goes hand in hand with
the Neo-Confucian teachings of the time which preached a hierarchical social order
starting in the family with women being subservient to their husbands.
The term status appears in Western Views of Chinese Women. It says,
“Although taking a concubine was supposed to be a method of last resort for a
patriarch to acquire a male heir, the practice was long established as a marker of elite
status. Western writers improperly termed this practice “polygamy,” or taking
multiple wives. In fact, the position of the wife remained sacrosanct with regards to
her authority in the household and her role as “mother” to all of her husband’s
progeny“. This states that that a concubine was not a wife.
Moise well explains that most marriages are arranged by parents of the people
involved. It was considered perfectly normal for the bride and grooms to be strangers,
and to meet one another for the first time during the marriage ceremony (28). Grasso,
Corrin, and Kort assumes, “… Chinese women had few property rights. They could
be cast out by their husbands or compelled to share him with other wives or
3. Manchu Marriage System of Etiquette
McAleavy explained the etiquettes that Manchu has. “… Until the end of
dynasty, despite virtual loss of their language, the Manchus retained enough of their
indigenous characteristics to create a social barrier between themselves and Chinese
…”(24).
McAleavy stated that in law, intermarriage between the two races was
forbidden, though the practical effect of this prohibition must not be exaggerated. “
… It was never intended to apply to unions between members of the Chinese and
Manchu banners: and probably its only result was to fortify Manchu families in their
reluctance to give their daughters in marriage to ordinary Chinese civilians …” (25).
McAleavy added that Manchu men, apart from the imperial family itself,
were not all deterred by statue from taking Chinese concubines. “The emperors order
that he should no beget a successor in whom an admixture of Chinese blood might
arouse inconvenient sympathies” (25).
McAleavy said, “ … during the days of Manchu power, the Manchu
leaders were resolute in disapproving of the most quintessentially Chinese of all
women’s adornments, namely the age-old habit of foot binding; and forbade the
practice to their own women” (24). Best also states that the Manchus prohibited Han
4. Education for the Chinese girls (under Japanese Government)
In term of education, Chinese girls were educated by the Japanese Government..
In addition, Moise explained, “… The status of women rose; a small but increasing
proportion of them obtained formal education, and the custom of foot-binding began
to decline (50)”. It is seen that education is developing and the existence of old
custom is vanishing.
Furthermore, Twitchett and Fairbank in Buck clearly reported, “Of the 87.000
persons surveyed …, 45.2 percent of the males and 2.2 percent of the females
reported receiving some schooling. … 66 percent reported that the education they
received was in the traditional style (187)”. From that report, it is clear that women in
this era received a traditional style school which is still limited.
5. Women and Leadership in the Chinese Communist Movement, 1921-1945
The women’s movement during Communist party hold entire China seen
clearly by Edwards, he states “With the disintegration of the central government
following Yuan Shikai’s death in 1916, the focus of the women’s movement turned to
provincial-level activity in Hunan, Guangdong, and other locations, where women
registered some success as sympathetic political leaders responded to their demands
for an end to discrimination based on sex. But the important development of these
years came with the May Fourth period and the revolutionary movement of the
this period also brought an expansion in the political consciousness of women with
social and ideological radicalisation in the Kuomintang, and the recruitment of a new
generation of women into the newly established Communist Party. During China’s
long revolutionary years the state both promoted and negated new roles for women.
Edwards observes that these developments brought a new awareness of
class to women activists who hitherto had conceived of franchise rights as “equality
between men and women of the educated and privileged classes. Yet the increasing
awareness of class furthered the development of the conception that women were
unified as a group because of their collective disadvantage relative to men.” (28).
Gender, Politics, and Democracy offers an account of Chinese women's
struggles for political suffrage from around the turn of the twentieth century to the
eve of the Communist victory in 1949. Edwards argues that the term “canzheng,”
suggesting political participation in general, was understood by female political
activists in the first half of the twentieth century in the more concrete sense of
“suffrage,” “centring on the twin rights to vote and to stand for election associated
with the full political franchise of full citizens”(17).
Indeed, Edwards concludes a basic argument of the study is, “the call for
women’s suffrage sought to force a shift in the consciousness of both men and
to a public sense of virtue, hitherto monopolised by men, which measured worth
according to public norms ability and accomplishment, most notably education” (28).
Dittmer described in Maloney that “…; whereas in the 1950s, only one in ten
Party members were female from 1966 to 1973, 27 percent of all new admissions
were women … (185)”. It means that women at this era can participate into a certain
political action, even though the chance was still limited.
6. Revolutionary Marriage
Gitting assumes, “After years of sexual repression, young Chinese were now
increasingly able to express open interest in questions of love and marriage” (244).
He adds, “in the words of Zhou Enlai’s widow Deng Ying Chao … ‘young men and
women should subordinate their own marriage and lifestyle to political demands …”
(245).
McAleavy festinates, “… the communist legislators recognized that to all
intents and purposes their task was the extirpation of “feudal” institutions. Of these
the most immediately obnoxious, as well as the easiest to deal with, was concubinage
(359)”. It means that communist regime has created rules to eradicate old tradition,
which in this case means revolutionary marriage.
Meanwhile, in Cina Sebuah Potret Bangsa, Alam dan Budaya explains that
there is a marriage rule existing since 1950. It is described, “Sebuah hukum
sendiri dan diberikan hak setara dalam perceraian, kepemilikan anak-anak, dan harta
benda. Namun, efeknya terbatas dan di pedesaan umunya diabaikan (120).”
“A new marriage rule had been introduced which allowing women to choose their
own spouse and given equivalent right on separation, children proprietary, and good
and chattel. However, there is limited effects and to the countryside generally
neglected (120).”
Twitchett and Fairbank reported, “… By the time of the New Culture
movement of 1917-1921, this had become part of the rebellion of youth against
family domination. Freedom of personal choice in marriage was still another
innovation (27)”. The struggle to improve women’s social roles starts to appear.
Marriage is one of the results.
C. Theoretical Framework
In this section, this study would summarize and synthesize the contribution of
the theories mentioned in the analysis of this study. This study carried out
socio-cultural historical approach to support the analysis since the object of the study is
Jung Chang’s work entitled Wild Swans and the problem is the influences of regimes
authorities on the Chinese women social roles. In addition, to develop understanding
about the influences of the regimes authorities, this study is supported with some
reviews of the social roles of Chinese women during different periods. After
relation and influence on the Chinese women social roles could be analyzed. After all
related reviews mentioned above were gained, the analysis of this study could be
20 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the methodology in this study. It consists of three parts,
namely object, approaches, and method of the study. The first part is the object of the
study. It explains the discussion of the novel to be focused on. The second part is the
approaches of the study. It discusses on the approaches to be applied in this study.
The third part is the method of the study. In this part, the procedures of gathering and
arranging the data are explained in writing this study.
A.Object of the Study
The objective of the study is to explore more about women’s social roles as
portrayed in the novel Jung Chang’s Wild Swans. This novel is one of the Jung
Chang’s famous works. This novel published in two editions. The first edition of this
novel published in 1991 by Global Flair Ltd. The second edition published in 2003 by
Touchstone in New York. This novel won two awards; they are the 1992 NCR Book
Award and the 1993 British Book of the Year. This novel has been translated into 30
languages and sold over 10 million copies. This study uses the second edition of the
novel. Additional information about the writer added to the introduction of the 2003
edition, including author’s note, family tree, chronology, and epilogue. Overall, it
Jung Chang’s Wild Swans is a novel which presents an autobiographical
family history. It tells the reader about the development of the characters’ lives of
each at different generations in a family. Jung Chang’s Wild Swans is in the genre of
historical fiction, and attempts to address by fictional narrative means. Wild Swans’s
changing authoritarian portrays the regimes in China in the twentieth century. It
portrays regimes authorities of China that influences each character. The story of the
novel is portrayed by three characters’ point of views. The novel writer, Jung Chang
described the events that happened in the three main characters social life.
This study analyses the influences of the regimes authorities on the women’s
social roles based on the author’s own experiences and those of her family in facing
the political and military turmoil at different regimes. It presents the three Chinese
women on different generations struggle in certain context of turbulent events and
how each of them is likely positioning themselves as a woman. Jung Chang’s Wild
Swans tells the epic story of her grandmother, mother and herself by focusing on their
childhood experiences, educational opportunities, family, including love and
marriages, social and political roles and some harrowing experiences while living
under different political regimes. Jung Chang paints a vivid portrait of the political
and military turmoil of China in 20th century China, from the marriage of her
grandmother to a warlord, to her mother's experience of Japanese-occupied Jinzhou
during the Second Sino-Japanese War, and her own experience of the effects of Mao's
policies of the 1950s and 1960s. Here, this study focuses on two characters’ lives;
B.Approaches of the Study
According to Rohrberger and Woods, “Society produces the culture, society
also makes history, and literature comes from a society” (6). It means that society,
culture, and history have to be counted in scrutinizing a literary work. In other words,
it can be said that society, culture, history, and a literary work connect each other.
The definition of socio-cultural historical criticism of literature by Rohrberger
and Woods has influenced my methodology in analyzing Chang’s writing. Another
reason for choosing this approach is because the approach contains a historical and
cultural background that underlies Chinese history and influences the writing of the
novel. In addition, this study tries to reveal the women’s social roles in facing the
different regimes authorities. The main characters to be examined are Yu-fang as
Jung Chang’s grandmother and De-hong as Jung Chang’s mother. The last reason
why this study uses a socio-cultural historical approach in analyzing women’s social
roles is because I am really interested in learning about the deeper forces at work in
creating the culture of a society.
C. Method of the Study
In getting the answers to the problem in Chapter 1, this study used library
research method. This study also took some data from the Internet related to Jung
Chang who is the author of Wild Swans.
After finding an interesting novel entitled Wild Swans. I decided to use this
important events in each chapter. I aimed to summarize each stage of development
that occurred within each chapter since this novel contained 665 pages.
The next step was to formulate questions for the research problem. It was the
most significant action to be decided because it would influence the entire research.
It was not enough to use only the primary sources to answer the problem
formulation, secondary sources were also needed. Since this study uses socio-cultural
historical approach, the secondary approaches relate to it. Some theories of literature
and socio-cultural historical books were used. Furthermore, additional sources such
as specific dictionaries and electronic sources were also taken into account. The next
processes were analyzing and arranging the data in order to answer the questions in
the problem formulation. After analysis was done, it was necessary to reread carefully
24 CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This chapter will answer problem formulation mentioned before. Here, this
study will try to answer the questions that appear in the novel to meet the curiosity. It
is intended that the people who read this study will also see some interesting points in
this analysis chapter. Some quotes in the novels will also be included to make the
points clear.
In order to analyze the changing of the women’s roles toward different
regimes, this chapter will be divided into two sub-chapters. In the first sub-chapter,
this study will analyze the women’s social roles as represented in the life of two main
characters’ lives on the novel. In the second sub-chapter, this study will try to gather,
analyze, and conclude the findings of the first sub-chapter in which each of the
character lives during different periods and regimes.. The findings of the second
sub-chapter then lead this study into the conclusion that is to find out the influence of
regimes authorities to the Chinese women’s social roles that takes place in China.
A. The Chinese Women’s Social Roles as Represented in the Life of Two
Characters in Jung Chang’s Wild Swans
There are two main characters’ lives in the novel that have their own story
written in each chapter of the novel. They are Yu-fang and De-hong. Each of them
1. Chinese Women’s Social Roles as represented in the life of Yu-fang
(1909-1938).
Yu-fang is a Chinese woman who was born in 1909. She lived during
transitional period time between dynasty and republic. The story of three generations
of family begins with the life of a young and oppressed woman named fang.
Yu-fang, the grandmother of the author Jung Chang, grew up in a struggling family, in a
house with her crippled mother and her unsympathetic father.
Her father, Yang Ru-Shan, was born in 1894, when the whole of China was
ruled by an emperor who controlled Peking. The imperial family was Manchus who
had conquered China in 1644 from Manchuria, which was their base. The Yangs were
Han which is a Chinese ethnic, and had ventured north of the great wall in search of
opportunity. Being a daughter of her family, she experienced the social roles of
women that can be seen in her ages.
The novel describes the government situation around 1911 when she lived:
In 1911, the five-year-old emperor of China, Pu Yi, was over thrown and a republic was set up with the charismatic figure of Sun Yat Sen briefly as its head. The new republican government soon collapsed and the country broke up into fiefs. Manchuria was particularly disaffected from the republic, since the Manchu dynasty originated there. Foreign powers, especially Japan, intensified their attempts to encroach on the area. Under all these pressures, the old institutions collapsed, resulting in a vacuum of power, morality, and authority. Many people sought to get to the top by bribing local potentates with expensive gifts like gold, silver, and jewelry (4).
This leads the argument that the disorder political regime influences the
morality, power, and authority of the country and the citizen who were living in.
passive, obedient, and oppressed. There are three major proofs that Yu-fang as an
example of a woman during this transitional period was experiencing patriarchal
system. According to Fairchild, patriarchal family system is a type of social
organization characterized by patrilineal descent. Patrilineal is reckoning descent,
inheritance, or succession exclusively or prudentially through males (215).
Furthermore, in Pane’s book, he added that during 19th century Tiongkok, Confucius also regulate the family system in line with patriarchal system. Father controls and
dominates the relation over the family and the other way around a child has to agree
with every decision made (94). From these arguments, it appears clearly that
Confucius as the domain factor related with patriarchal family system that regulates
the relationship between father and children. Moise defines, “The general thrust of
Confucianism was the importance of proper human relationships. Subordinates
should be reverent and obedient towards their superiors, while superiors should be
benevolent and just” (12). It means that Confucianism regulates the prime human
relationships. Here, Foot binding, concubine, and forbidden marriage are the major
proofs that indicate the influences of the Confucianism.
a) Foot binding
Yu-fang’s father plays as a main actor of her life. Supported by her family
background that is not rich enough to have a power in their society, her father
... My great-grandfather was not rich enough to buy him a lucrative position in a big city, and by the time he was thirty he had risen no higher than an official in the police station of his native Yixian, a provincial backwater. But he had plans. And he had valuable asset—his daughter (4).
It shows that Yu-fang’s father regulated the power of her family. Her
father’s background status and roles makes certain decision to be run. His father was
the only son, which made him the supreme importance to his family. This principle
leads the argumentation of the Confucianism. Mc Aleavy states that Confucian
family system is a doctrine that regulated every aspect of human activity and formed
the basis of entire structure of the state. It was said that the Feudal principalities were
seen as the prime need of mankind to resolve the problems of peaceful coexistence
and harmony with the universe. McAleavy states in his book Modern History of
China that Confucian principle is to serve parents during their life and when they die
to bury them and to sacrifice to them (6). Furthermore, it can be concluded that
Confucianism becomes the prime doctrine that regulates the relationship among the
family members.
Since Yu-fang was two years old, her feet had been bound. It was her
greatest assets. The novel explains:
It means that bound feet was an asset to Chinese women. Furthermore, the reason
why doing bound feet is quoted on the novel:
… The practice of binding feet was originally introduced about a thousand years ago, allegedly by a concubine of the emperor. Not only was the sight of women hobbling on tiny feet considered erotic, men would also get excited playing with bound feet, which were always hidden in embroidered silk shoes.
... As I child, I can remember my grandmother being in constant pain. When we came home from shopping, the first thing she would do was soak her feet in a bowl of hot water, sighing with relief as she did so. Then she would set about cutting off pieces of dead skin. The pain came not only from the broken bones, but also from her toenails, which grew into balls of her feet (6).
It means that foot binding makes the girls are hard to move. They are also in a misery
because of its painful effects.
Yu-fang’s father was not only preparing her to be bounded but also to be
trained as either a perfect lady or a high courtesan. Meanwhile, Moise adds, “The
status differentiation in Chinese society extended to family relationship …. As
children, most of them had to bind their feet – to wear tight wrappings which
prevented the feet from growing to normal size, and distorted the skeletal structure
...” (28). Moise also defines that the only way a woman could attain a position of
power and security was through a relationship with a male (28).
It is stated in the novel, “scorning the received wisdom of the time it was
virtuous for a lower class woman to be illiterate. He sent her to a girl’s school that
had been set up in the town in 1905. She learned to play Chinese chess, mah-jong,
education also existed for the Chinese women at that era. However, it was still
limited. Kiat and Sudarno stated that it was caused by the glamorous and luxurious
life in the kingdom; so that the girls eager to get prosperous, the civil were also afraid
of letting girls go outside and wanting the status similar with man in the education
and government administration area (191).
Based on the statements above, Chinese woman at this era shows their roles
by binding their feet as a tradition since China became a dynasty. They must be
bound because they are prepared not only as a concubine, but also as the family asset
who will make the family status higher.
Every action has its own aim. Foot binding has also an aim for the women. It
restricts the movement space for women to move. O’Neil added that foot-binding
also had the effect of restricting a woman’s movements and advertising the status of
her family, since such a woman was incapable of working in the fields (94). It can be
drawn that foot-binding aimed at limiting the woman’s movements in her life.
From all of the supporting arguments above, it is clear that the roles of a
woman that is being the victim of a foot binding is passive, obedient, and oppressed.
This leads to an argument that women living in this era are to be a secondary class.
b) Concubine
Once Yu-fang reached her teenage years, her father began searching for a
powerful husband for his daughter to marry. As a teenager, Yu-fang was very
be very striking. Her father used her beauty to his advantage when searching for a
husband for Yu-fang. He had chosen a highly ranked warlord general who would
bring status and power to the family and Yu-fang’s father. Her father had long plan
for her to be a concubine of a warlord Xue Zhi-heng. The novel tells that:
For my great grandfather, this was a once in a lifetime chance, the closest he was ever going to get to a real VIP. He schemed to get himself the job of escorting General Xue, and told his wife he was going to try to marry their daughter off to him. He did not ask his wife for her agreement; he merely informed him. Quite apart from this being the custom of the day, my great grandfather despised her wife. She wept, but said nothing. He told her she must not breathe a word to their daughter. There was no question of consulting his daughter (10).
From these statements, it explains that marriage was a transaction, not a matter of
feelings. Yu-fang was married to a warlord general who could make her father’s
status higher. Bushnel states that power and family status were considered to be very
important during the early 1900’s. Moise also well explains that most marriages were
arranged by parents of the people who were involved. It was considered perfectly
normal for the bride and grooms to be strangers, and to meet one another for the first
time during the marriage ceremony (28). These two ideas define that marriage in this
era was fully arranged by the parents. Women had no idea or right to choose and even
to decide their marriage life.
At first, she could not believe the idea of being a concubine. It is described
in the novel that:
parents. To question a parental decision was considered “unfilial” and to be unfilial was tantamount to treason. Even if she refused to consent to her father’s wishes, she would not be taken seriously; her action would be interpreted as indicating that she wanted to stay with her parents. The only way to say no and be taken seriously was to commit suicide. My grandmother bit her lip and said nothing. In fact, there was nothing she could say. Even to say yes would be taken to imply that she was eager to leave her parents (13).
From these statements, Yu-fang had to admit her marriage in becoming a
concubine, even though she did not want it. She has to put parental decision first. It is
also interpreted that a woman has to be silent in every decision she faced.
Furthermore, being a concubine differs from being a wife. The novel clearly
describes,
Before the evening was over he had proposed not to my grandmother, of course, but to her father. He did not offer marriage, only which my grandmother should become his concubine. But Yang had not expected anything else. The Xue family would have arranged a marriage for the general long before on the basis of social positions. In any case, the Yangs were too humble to provide a wife. But it was expected that a man like General Xue should take concubines. Wives were not for pleasure that was what concubines were for. Concubines might acquire considerable power, but their social status was quite different from that of a wife. A concubine was a kind of institutionalized mistress, acquired and discarded at wills. (14).
However, the life of a concubine was far from pleasant. A concubine would
be subject to the authority of the husband’s wife while also bestowing a great deal of
honor and loyalty upon her “husband”. Meaning to say, the roles of woman who will
be a concubine differs from a wife. The function of a concubine is for pleasure, but
the function of a wife is not. McAleavy added that wife and concubine were distinct
relatively small part of the population (10). In addition, Buchnel states that during
this particular time period, women were not highly regarded. A woman’s role was to
be married off and to live a life pleasing to her husband. Furthermore, Grasso, Corrin,
and Kort assumes, “… Chinese women had few property rights. They could be cast
out by their husbands or compelled to share him with other wives or concubines.
Bound to an arranged marriage …”(13). These lead a conclusion that the status of
concubine is far pleasant from a wife. They are put to be secondary class.
From all supporting arguments, it can be said that being a concubine is one of
the dedication forms for her parents. As said by Confucius in Pane’s book “Tiongkok
Zaman Baru”,
Confucius mengatur perhubungan didalam keluarga, sesuai dengan tjara patriarchaat, bapak berkuasa atas anak, dan sebaliknya anak itu harus tunduk kepada perintah si bapak dalam segala hal, karena tidaklah ada padanya melainkan si bapak.” (94).
Confucius regulates the family relationship appropriate with patriarchal way, the father controls the relation over the family and the other way around a child has to agree with every decision made” (94).
Here, Confucius regulates the relationship over the family. As a child who
had been a concubine, has to agree with every decision made. Again, it can be
concluded that being a concubine, Chinese women living in this era shows that they
are secondary class that have to agree in every decision including their parents’ will.
They are also differentiated in a matter of status and roles. They are raised to be
c) Forbidden Marriage
In 1933, Yu-fang eventually remarried a much older, established doctor. The
controversial marriage was founded on love yet was looked down upon by the
children of Dr. Xia. His children asked with him not to marry a former concubine
however the begging stopped when one of Dr. Xia’s son’s accidentally took his own
life in an attempt to stop the marriage. Married with a Manchu doctor, his name is Dr.
Xia, he was not a Han Chinese, as were the Yangs and most of China, but a Manchu,
one of the original inhabitants of Manchuria. He was well known not only as an
excellent doctor, but also a very kind man, who often treated poor people for nothing.
He was sixty-five, and a widower, with three grown-up sons and one daughter, all of
them married. The fact that Yu-fang had been a concubine, plus the age gap, which
meant they would have to do obeisance to someone with an inferior status and much
younger than themselves, was too much for the sons. Their children were disagreeing
with his plan because of the fact that he was a Manchu. Moreover, the novel states
that:
… They begged Dr. Xia to consider the fact that he was a Manchu, and that according to ancient Manchu custom, a man of his status should not marry a Han Chinese. ... One of the families trotted out an ancient saying: “A young wife who has an old husband is really another man’s woman.” (36).
“At the mention of the word “character,” the eldest son gave a loud snort: “how can you mention the word ‘character’ about a concubine! No good woman would have become a concubine in the first place! ... (39).
From these statements, it can be underlined that the fact that Yu-fang was an
disagrees. Based on the Manchu of etiquettes, there are some rules in regulating
Yu-fang and Dr.Xia. McAleavy stated that in law, intermarriage between the two races
was forbidden, though the practical effect of this prohibition must not be exaggerated.
It was never intended to apply to unions between members of the Chinese and
Manchu and probably its only result was to fortify Manchu families in their
reluctance to give their daughters in marriage to ordinary Chinese civilians (25). That
is why intermarriage that was experienced by Yu-fang was forbidden. There was a
rule that prohibiting intermarriage as had been around by women at this era.
The emperor authorized the intermarriage between Manchu men and
Chinese concubines. McAleavy added that Manchu men, apart from the imperial
family itself, were not all deterred by statue from taking Chinese concubines. The
emperors order that he should no beget a successor in whom an admixture of Chinese
blood might arouse inconvenient sympathies (25). Best also states that the Manchus
prohibited Han Chinese from migrating to the Manchu homeland and forbid
intermarriage. It interprets that the Emperor regulated the marriage between Manchu
men and Chinese concubines. It was forbidden to have such a marriage because it was
resulting in inconvenient sympathies among the Manchu men.
Based on those arguments, there are some marriage rules regulating Chinese
women at this era, which is intermarriage. As Yu-fang’s grows older, the reader is
able to see the traditional ideals of old China collapse as new philosophies and ideas
are developed. Yu-fang’s indirect voice and oppressed life is contrasted with her
daughter are compared and used to describe the cultural changes that took place
during the lifetime of Grandmother Yu-fang.
2. Chinese Women’s Social Roles as represented in the life of De-hong
(1931-1951)
De-hong was born in 1931 when most of China was ruled by Kuomintang
party under Chiang Kai-Shek. It unified most of China. Furthermore, Japan invaded
Manchuria. Japanese occupied Yixian, Jinzhou. “Manchukuo” established under Pu
Yi. De-hong lived through World War II, Japanese atrocities, and the end of the war.
From this description, De-hong had lived when China was ruled by different master
or colonizer. This situation had given some impacts to the women’s social roles.
There are many proofs that can be raised through finding women’s social roles in
that era.
a) Education for the Chinese girls (under Japanese Government)
In 1938, De-hong was sent to elementary school. At that time, education
was tightly controlled by the Japanese. At the school, she found discrimination
toward local and Japanese pupils. The novel tells, “... Japanese children attended
separate schools, which were well equipped and well heated, with shining floors and
clean windows. The schools for the local children were in dilapidated temples and
crumbling houses donated by private patrons. ... (59).” There was no proper education
It was not only the proof for discriminating between local and Japanese
pupils. It was also apparent that for Chinese pupil girls received different education.
After several years, De-hong moved up into junior high school. Times had changed
since De-hong’s youth, and young women were no longer confined to the four walls
of their home. It was socially acceptable for women to get a high school education. It
is said in the novel that,
… However, boys and girls received different educations. For girls the aim was to turn them into “gracious wives and good mothers”, as the school motto put it. They learned what the Japanese called “the way of a woman”—looking after household, cooking and sewing, the tea ceremony, flower arrangement, embroidery, drawing, and the appreciation of art. The single most important thing imparted was how to please one’s husband. This included how to dress… (69).
High education in this point means controlled and directed course. It is
because a woman living in this era had to learn how to do housework and the
appreciation of art. Women had received some education materials that were
differentiated between men and women. They had to learn informal materials that
showed how women should learn. It means, they are still controlled and limited in a
broad learning situations. In this case, De-hong did not agree. She rebelled through
this kind of education. This novel described, “... as my grandmother put it, my mother
seemed to have “rebellious bones,” and learned almost none of these skills, even
cooking.” (69). Hence, there is a chance for women to rebel against a custom.
In addition, Moise explained, “… The status of women rose; a small but
increasing proportion of them obtained formal education, and the custom of
existence of an old custom disappears. Furthermore, Twitchett and Fairbank in Buck
clearly reported, “Of the 87.000 persons surveyed …, 45.2 percent of the males and
2.2 percent of the females reported receiving some schooling. … 66 percent reported
that the education they received was in the traditional style (187)”. From that report,
it is clear that women in this era received a traditional style school which was still
limited.
Supported by those arguments, the conclusion can be drawn that education
that is had by pupils and Chinese girls is still limited and controlled into the basic
position of the women themselves. Then, it can be concluded that Chinese women in
this era still face limited struggle for their own education.
b) Becoming Student Leader and Joining Communist Underground Member
In 1946, De-hong became student leader and joined Communist
underground. Things had changed. In 1946 women could live in by themselves and
find work, like teaching or medicine, although working was still regarded as the last
resort by most families (87). It means that women in this era seem to be independent.
They also can do various activities.
The novel explains that:
The novel concludes that she was appalled by the casual extravagance of
the Kuomintang elite while people were starving to death in streets and this made her
even more committed to the communists (106). It can be drawn that economical
destroyed and its result make her commit to be a communist. Edward clearly
describes,
... But the important development of these years came with the May Fourth period and the revolutionary movement of the 1920s, which placed women’s liberation on the national agenda. This period also brought an expansion in the political consciousness of women with social and ideological radicalisation in the Kuomintang, and the recruitment of a new generation of women into the newly established Communist Party. During China’s long revolutionary years the state both promoted and negated new roles for women (28) .
It means that the conflict between Kuomintang and communist underlying the
movement of women’s social roles. It shows that the recruitment of a new generation
of women into a communist party had influenced through their new roles as a party
participant.
In 1948, De-hong was arrested by Kuomintang. She found his lecturing and
his whole attitude insufferable. She said to commander in a loud voice. She protested
what had happened to her friends in Tianjin. From the moment the communist forces
arrived, my mother had been longing to throw herself into working for the revolution.
She felt herself to be very much part of the Communist causes (127-128). By
participating in a communist party, De-hong reflects the women’s social roles at this
era that women are still regarded as partial chance. It means that women can
participate into political party in a limited chance. Moreover, Edwards observes that
