FENNEMA’S
Srinivasan Damodaran Kirk L. Parkin
edited by
FOOD CHEMISTRY
F I F T H E D I T I O N
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Fennema, Owen R. | Damodaran, Srinivasan. | Parkin, Kirk L. (Kirk Lindsay), 1955-
Title: Fennema’s food chemistry.
Other titles: Food chemistry
Description: Fifth edition / [edited by] Srinivasan Damodaran & Kirk L.
Parkin. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016027062| ISBN 9781482243611 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781482208122 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN a9781482208139 (e-book) | ISBN 9781482243666 (e-book) | ISBN 9781482208146 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Food--Analysis. | Food--Composition.
Classification: LCC TX541 .F65 2017 | DDC 664/.07--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016027062
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v
Contents
Preface...vii
Memorial Resolution of the Faculty of the University of Wisconsin–Madison ...ix
Editors ...xiii
Contributors ...xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Food Chemistry ...1
Owen R. Fennema, Srinivasan Damodaran, and Kirk L. Parkin
Section i Major Food components
Chapter 2 Water and Ice Relations in Foods ... 19Srinivasan Damodaran Chapter 3 Carbohydrates... 91
Kerry C. Huber and James N. BeMiller Chapter 4 Lipids ...171
David Julian McClements and Eric Andrew Decker Chapter 5 Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins ...235
Srinivasan Damodaran Chapter 6 Enzymes ...357
Kirk L. Parkin Chapter 7 Dispersed Systems: Basic Considerations ...467
Ton van Vliet and Pieter Walstra
Section ii Minor Food components
Chapter 8 Vitamins ...543Jesse F. Gregory III Chapter 9 Minerals ...627
Dennis D. Miller
Chapter 10 Colorants ... 681 Steven J. Schwartz, Jessica L. Cooperstone, Morgan J. Cichon,
Joachim H. von Elbe, and M. Monica Giusti
Chapter 11 Flavors ... 753 Robert C. Lindsay
Chapter 12 Food Additives ...803 Robert C. Lindsay
Chapter 13 Bioactive Food Components: Nutraceuticals and Toxicants ... 865 Hang Xiao and Chi-Tang Ho
Section iii Food Systems
Chapter 14 Characteristics of Milk ...907 David S. Horne
Chapter 15 Physiology and Chemistry of Edible Muscle Tissues ... 955 Gale M. Strasburg and Youling L. Xiong
Chapter 16 Postharvest Physiology of Edible Plant Tissues ...1017 Christopher B. Watkins
Index ...1087
vii
Preface
Welcome to the fifth edition of Fennema’s Food Chemistry. The 11-year interval from the fourth edition has prompted transitions in contributors and content evoked by the waxing and waning of careers, and discoveries based on another decade of research and development. New contributors and co-contributors appear for chapters on “Water and Ice”, “Colorants”, “Bioactive Substances:
Nutraceuticals and Toxicants”, “Characteristics of Milk” and “Postharvest Physiology of Edible Plant Tissues”. The Chapters titled ‘’Physical and Chemical Interactions of Components in Food Systems” and “Impact of Biotechnology on Food Supply and Quality” have been omitted from the 5th Edition. In contrast, some things never changed. Dr. Robert Lindsay has been the sole author of the “Food Additives” chapter in all five editions (titled “Other desirable constituents of food” in the first edition) and “Food Flavors” in the second through the fifth edition, despite our efforts to find a better contributor. Some acts are just tough to follow. We are greatly appreciative of the authors’
efforts in preparing the fifth edition, for the seriousness and dedication they invested in preparing chapter revisions and complete rewrites to bring the content of Fennema’s Food Chemistry up to date as much as possible.
On a very sad and somber note, many of you are aware that Dr. Owen Fennema made his final transition in life in August 2012. Sir Isaac Newton said, “If I have seen further it is by standing upon the shoulders [sic] of giants.” For those of us privileged to have had our lives touched by Owen, we have benefited from the perch of insight he offered, enabling us to see further than we could have on our own. He also inspired us by the manner in which he conducted himself as a scientist, profes- sional, and human being. This fifth edition is dedicated to Dr. Owen Fennema, and, in that context, we share with you the following two documents.
Srinivasan Damodaran and Kirk L. Parkin Madison, Wisconsin, USA
ix
Memorial Resolution of the Faculty of the University of Wisconsin–Madison
ON THE DEATH OF PROFESSOR EMERITUS OWEN R. FENNEMA
Professor Emeritus Owen Fennema, age 83, of Middleton, passed away due to complications from bladder cancer, surrounded by family on Wednesday, August 1, 2012, at Agrace Hospice Care. Owen was born on January 23, 1929, in Hinsdale, Illinois, the son of Nicolas (a dairy plant owner) and Fern (First) Fennema. He moved to Winfield, Kansas graduating from high school in 1946. He met his beloved wife, Elizabeth (nee Hammer) in high school and they were married on August 22, 1948.
Owen attended Kansas State University, obtained a B.S. degree in Dairy Industry in 1950, and promptly completed an M.S. degree in Dairy Industry at UW-Madison in 1951. Owen served from 1951 to 1953 as 2nd Lieutenant Ordnance in the U.S. Army, stationed in Fort Hood, Texas. He and Elizabeth moved to Minneapolis, MN in 1953 where Owen worked for the Pillsbury Company in the research department. In 1957, they moved to Madison where Owen went to graduate school and received his Ph.D. in Dairy and Food Industries (minor in biochemistry) in 1960.
Owen was hired as an Assistant Professor in food chemistry in 1960, was promoted to Associate (1964) and Full Professor (1969), served as department Chair 1977–1981, and remained a Professor of Food Science at UW-Madison until his retirement in 1996. During that time, he excelled in every facet of his service to the Food Science department, The College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, the UW-Madison campus, the Food Science profession, and international community.
In research, Professor Fennema positioned his group at the leading edge in several areas, the most noteworthy and formative being low temperature biology of foods and model food systems, and edible films. Holistic approaches were taken to define and understand the physi- cal, chemical and biological behaviors of food systems that affect characteristics related to food quality. His fundamental discoveries of the complexities of interactions between phase behav- ior, (bio)chemical reactivity and solute transport in food systems evolved scientific paradigms in these areas, many of which still guide professionals today. Revealing the nature, influence and control of water and ice in foods was a mainstay of Professor Fennema’s research career as reflected by the content of his several hundred scholarly publications and book chapters, along with ~60 theses/dissertations completed by the graduate students he mentored. Among the many honors and awards Owen received for his research activities, the most prestigious were Fellow, and Advancement of Application of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Award, the high- est honor from the Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division of American Chemical Society (ACS); Fellow from the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) and the Nicholas Appert Award (IFT’s highest honor); and the Honorary Doctoral degree in Agriculture and Environmental Science from Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.
In the classroom, Professor Fennema was a gifted communicator and facilitator of student learning. He was legendary in his meticulous organization of course content, and his lectures were crystal clear, like the “water and ice” he frequently studied in research. His focus on explaining principles, coupled with illustrated examples (updated regularly) provided students
with a “real world” feel. Owen’s classroom presence and enthusiasm in the delivery of the mate- rial “[brought] the subject matter to life”. Owen had a genuine interest in student learning, would encourage questions, and then take time inside and out of class to help students put it all together.
Students came to know Owen as a respectful advocate of theirs, and they found inspiration from his total commitment to their education. In a lifetime of stellar achievements, Owen was recognized world-wide for the publication of a seminal book for food science students and scholars, now titled
“Fennema’s Food Chemistry”, published in four editions and multiple languages, and widely used today throughout the world. He considered this one of his greatest achievements as an instructor. He has received many accolades from colleagues and students, including “phenomenal teacher”, a “titan in his field” and a “father of food science”, and he mentored individuals who later became some of the most prestigious leaders in the food science world. To nobody’s surprise, Professor Fennema was awarded the William V. Cruess Award for Excellence in Teaching from IFT, a UW-Madison Distinguished Teaching Award and a Fulbright distinguished lecturer award, Madrid, Spain.
Owen served on numerous professional boards and committees, including the American Chemical Society, the Council for Agriculture Science and Technology and the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), for which he served in multiple capacities, including treasurer from 1994–1999 and president from 1982 to 1983. Owen was editor-in-chief of IFT’s peer-reviewed journals from 1999 to 2003 when he facilitated a complete reversal of their decline in quality and relevance, ascending to its present stature as an impactful and respected journal among food science scholars.
He served on several National Advisory Councils and was recognized by a U.S. FDA Director’s special citation award (2000).
Owen was a citizen of the world, as evidenced by his many contributions to international food science, not the least of which was his service to the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST). He served in various capacities in IUFoST, gave lectures around the world, and served as major professor to numerous international students. From 1999 to 2001 Owen served as the first President of the International Academy of Food Science and Technology. Owen truly had a global influence, impacting both lives and educational programs of numerous institutions. He was a man without prejudice as illustrated by being one of the first American food scientists to be invited to South Africa, and upon acceptance, insisted that he speak at black institutions in South Africa.
Despite the awards and accolades, Owen remained a humble and caring individual. To his mentors he was always available, had unlimited patience and became a friend for life. Because of the demands on Owen’s time, his students and colleagues would often try to converse with him at every opportunity, sometimes during his frequent walks about campus. Owen’s legendary gait made it difficult for others to keep pace with him, risking the inability to engage in intelligent discourse with him while also gasping for air.
Professionally, Owen was often so far out ahead of the rest of us, that we too wondered how we could keep pace.
Owen was also an accomplished poet, wood worker, carpenter and artisan of leaded glass. He was a truly gifted artist, and many of his works are hanging in UW-Madison buildings, IFT head- quarters in Chicago, and in private homes of friends and acquaintances. One beautiful piece greets visitors arriving through the main entrance to our beloved Babcock Hall.
Owen touched the lives of many people, including students, colleagues, friends and family. In the last weeks of his life, many people wrote comments and letters to him about what a great teacher and mentor he was and the enormous impact he made on their lives. “As a distinguished scholar, world renowned professor and kind and caring friend, he was an inspiration to us all.”
We are caressed by water as we enter this world, water sustains us as the essence of life, and an overflow of tears accompanies our leaving loved ones behind. Owen studied water his entire profes- sional life. It is easy to picture him now, “playing” with water, looking at us with his habitual wry
grin, knowing something we don’t, but eager to share it—ever the teacher. Although we mourn his passing, we will cherish the gift he has left us, the indelible impression of the value of dedication, selflessness, humanity and example.
MEMORIAL COMMITTEE Srinivasan Damodaran Daryl B. Lund Kirk L. Parkin, Chair
© University of Wisconsin–Madison, with permission
Among Dr. Owen Fennema’s many talents, he had a way with words, including the ability to pose science blended with the art of a storyteller. Here is an excerpt from Dr. Fennema’s chapter on
“Water and Ice,” page 18, from Food Chemistry, Third Edition.
PROLOGUE: WATER—THE DECEPTIVE MATTER OF LIFE AND DEATH
Unnoticed in the darkness of a subterranean cavern, a water droplet trickles slowly down a stalac- tite, following a path left by countless predecessors, imparting, as did they, a small but almost magi- cal touch of mineral beauty. Pausing at the tip, the droplet grows slowly to full size, then plunges quickly to the cavern floor, as if anxious to perform other tasks or to assume different forms. For water, the possibilities are countless. Some droplets assume roles of quiet beauty - on a child’s coat sleeve, where a snowflake of unique design and exquisite perfection lies unnoticed; on a spider’s web, where dew drops burst into sudden brilliance at the first touch of the morning sun; in the countryside, where a summer shower brings refreshment; or in the city, where fog gently permeates the night air, subduing harsh sounds with a glaze of tranquility. Others lend themselves to the noise and vigor of a waterfall, to the overwhelming immensity of a glacier, to the ominous nature of an impending storm, or to the persuasiveness of a tear on a woman’s cheek. For others the role is less obvious but far more critical. There is life - initiated and sustained by water in a myriad of subtle and poorly understood ways - or death inevitable, catalyzed under special circumstances by a few hostile crystals of ice; or decay at the forest’s floor, where water works relentlessly to disassemble the past so life can begin anew. But the form of water most familiar to humans is none of these;
rather, it is simple, ordinary, and uninspiring, unworthy of special notice as it flows forth in cool abundance from a household tap. “Humdrum,” galunks a frog in concurrence, or so it seems as he views with stony indifference the watery milieu on which his very life depends. Surely, then, water’s most remarkable feature is deception, for it is in reality a substance of infinite complexity, of great and unassessable importance, and one that is endowed with a strangeness and beauty sufficient to excite and challenge anyone making its acquaintance.
xiii
Editors
Srinivasan Damodaran is a professor of food chemistry at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
He is editor of the book Food Proteins and Lipids (Plenum Press) and coeditor of the book Food Proteins and Their Applications (with Alain Paraf) (Marcel Dekker, Inc.) and author/coauthor of 12 patents and more than 157 professional papers in his research areas, which include protein chem- istry, enzymology, surface and colloidal science, process technologies, and industrial biodegradable polymers. He is a fellow of the Agriculture and Food Chemistry Division of the American Chemical Society. In the fall of 2016, Dr. Damodaran was selected to be the first recipient of the “Owen R.
Fennema Professorhip in Food Chemistry” award made possible by private gifts to fund an endow- ment to honor and preserve the legacy of personal and professional accomplishments achieved by Dr. Fennema. He is on the editorial board of Food Biophysics journal. Dr. Damodaran received his BSc (1971) in chemistry from the University of Madras, Madras (now Chennai), India, MSc (1975) in food technology from Mysore University, Mysore, India, and PhD (1981) from Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Kirk L. Parkin is professor in the Department of Food Science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he has been on the faculty for more than 31 years. His research and teaching interests revolve around food chemistry and biochemistry, with 3 patents and about 110 refereed journal publications in the areas of marine food biochemistry, postharvest physiology and processing of fruit and veg- etable products, fundamental and applied enzymology, and potentially health-promoting bioactive compounds from foods of botanical origin. He has been appointed as the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences Fritz Friday Chair of Vegetable Processing Research for much of the last 19 years, and was elected fellow of the Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division of the American Chemical Society in 2003. Dr. Parkin serves as associate editor for Journal of Food Science and on the edito- rial board of Food Research International. Dr. Parkin received his BS (1977) and PhD (2003) in food science from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and MS (1979) in food science from the University of California, Davis.
xv
Contributors
James N. BeMiller
Department of Food Science Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana Morgan J. Cichon The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
Jessica L. Cooperstone The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
Srinivasan Damodaran Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin
Eric Andrew Decker Department of Food Science University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts Owen R. Fennema M. Monica Giusti
Department of Food Science The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
Jesse F. Gregory III
Food Science and Human Nutrition University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida Chi-Tang Ho
Department of Food Science Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey David S. Horne
Center for Dairy Research University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin
Kerry C. Huber
Department of Animal and Food Science Brigham Young University–Idaho Rexburg, Idaho
Robert C. Lindsay
University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin
David Julian McClements Department of Food Science University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts Dennis D. Miller
Department of Food Science Cornell University
Ithaca, New York Kirk L. Parkin
Department of Food Science University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin
Steven J. Schwartz The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio
Gale M. Strasburg
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition
Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Ton van Vliet
Wageningen Agricultural University Wageningen, the Netherlands Joachim H. von Elbe
University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin
Pieter Walstra
Wageningen Agricultural University Wageningen, the Netherlands
Christopher B. Watkins
School of Integrative Plant Science Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Hang Xiao
Department of Food Science University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts Youling L. Xiong
Department of Animal and Food Sciences University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
1
1 Introduction to Food Chemistry
Owen R. Fennema, Srinivasan Damodaran, and Kirk L. Parkin
1.1 WHAT IS FOOD CHEMISTRY?
Food science deals with the physical, chemical, and biological properties of foods as they relate to stability, cost, quality, processing, safety, nutritive value, wholesomeness, and convenience.
Food science is a branch of biological science and an interdisciplinary subject involving primarily microbiology, chemistry, biology, and engineering. Food chemistry, a major aspect of food science, deals with the composition and properties of food and the chemical changes it undergoes during handling, processing, and storage. Food chemistry is intimately related to chemistry, biochemistry, physiological chemistry, botany, zoology, and molecular biology. The food chemist relies heavily on knowledge of the aforementioned sciences to effectively study and control biological substances as sources of human food. Knowledge of the innate properties of biological substances and mas- tery of the means of manipulating them are common interests of both food chemists and biological scientists. The primary interests of biological scientists include reproduction, growth, and changes that biological substances undergo under environmental conditions that are compatible or margin- ally compatible with life. To the contrary, food chemists are concerned primarily with biological substances that are dead or dying (postharvest physiology of plants and postmortem physiology of muscle) and changes they undergo when exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions. For example, conditions suitable for sustaining residual life processes are of concern to food chemists during the marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables, whereas conditions incompatible with life processes are of major interest when long-term preservation of food is attempted. In addition, food chemists are concerned with the chemical properties of disrupted food tissues (flour, fruit and veg- etable juices, isolated and modified constituents, and manufactured foods), single-cell sources of food (eggs and microorganisms), and one major biological fluid, milk. In summary, food chemists have much in common with biological scientists, yet they also have interests that are distinctly dif- ferent and are of the utmost importance to humankind.
CONTENTS
1.1 What Is Food Chemistry? ...1
1.2 History of Food Chemistry ...2
1.3 Approach to the Study of Food Chemistry ...5
1.3.1 Analysis of Situations Encountered during the Storage and Processing of Food ...8
1.4 Societal Role of Food Chemists ...13
1.4.1 Why Should Food Chemists Become Involved in Societal Issues? ...13
1.4.2 Types of Involvement ...14
References ...15
1.2 HISTORY OF FOOD CHEMISTRY
The origins of food chemistry are obscure, and details of its history have not yet been rigorously studied and recorded. This is not surprising since food chemistry did not acquire a clear identity until the twentieth century, and its history is deeply entangled with that of agricultural chemistry for which historical documentation is not considered exhaustive [1,2]. Thus, the following brief excur- sion into the history of food chemistry is incomplete and selective. Nonetheless, available informa- tion is sufficient to indicate when, where, and why certain key events in food chemistry occurred and to relate some of these events to major changes in the wholesomeness of the food supply since the early 1800s.
Although the origin of food chemistry, in a sense, extends to antiquity, the most significant dis- coveries, as we judge them today, began in the late 1700s. The best accounts of developments during this period are those of Filby [3] and Browne [1], and these sources have been relied upon for much of the information presented here.
During the period of 1780–1850, a number of famous chemists made important discoveries, many of which related directly or indirectly to food, and these works contain the origins of modern food chemistry. Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), a Swedish pharmacist, was one of the greatest chemists of all time. In addition to his more famous discoveries of chlorine, glycerol, and oxygen (3 years before Priestly, but unpublished), he isolated and studied the properties of lactose (1780), prepared mucic acid by oxidation of lactic acid (1780), devised a means of preserving vinegar by the application of heat (1782, well in advance of Appert’s “discovery”), isolated citric acid from lemon juice (1784) and gooseberries (1785), isolated malic acid from apples (1785), and tested 20 common fruits for the presence of citric, malic, and tartaric acids (1785). His isolation of various new chemi- cal compounds from plant and animal substances is considered the beginning of accurate analytical research in agricultural and food chemistry.
The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) was instrumental in the final rejec- tion of the phlogiston theory and in formulating the principles of modern chemistry. With respect to food chemistry, he established the fundamental principles of combustion organic analysis, he was the first to show that the process of fermentation could be expressed as a balanced equation, he made the first attempt to determine the elemental composition of alcohol (1784), and he presented one of the first papers (1786) on organic acids of various fruits.
Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure (1767–1845), a French chemist, did much to formalize and clarify the principles of agricultural and food chemistry provided by Lavoisier. He also studied CO2 and O2 changes during plant respiration (1804) and the mineral contents of plants by ashing and made the first accurate elemental analysis of alcohol (1807).
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) and Louis-Jacques Thenard (1777–1857) devised in 1811 the first method to determine percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen in dry vegetable substances.
The English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy (1778–1829) in the years 1807 and 1808 isolated the ele- ments K, Na, Ba, Sr, Ca, and Mg. His contributions to agricultural and food chemistry came largely through his books on agricultural chemistry, of which the first (1813) was Elements of Agriculture Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture [4]. His books served to organize and clarify knowledge existing at that time. In the first edition he stated,
All the different parts of plants are capable of being decomposed into a few elements. Their uses as food, or for the purpose of the arts, depend upon compound arrangements of these elements, which are capable of being produced either from their organized parts, or from the juices they contain; and the examination of the nature of these substances is an essential part of agricultural chemistry.
In the fifth edition he stated that plants are usually composed of only seven or eight elements and that “the most essential vegetable substances consist of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen in different proportion, generally alone, but in some few cases combined with azote [nitrogen]” (p. 121) [5].
The works of the Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) and the Scottish chem- ist Thomas Thomson (1773–1852) resulted in the beginnings of organic formulas, “without which organic analysis would be a trackless desert and food analysis an endless task” [3]. Berzelius deter- mined the elemental components of about 2000 compounds, thereby verifying the law of definite proportions. He also devised a means of accurately determining the water content of organic sub- stances, a deficiency in the method of Gay-Lussac and Thenard. Moreover, Thomson showed that laws governing the composition of inorganic substances apply equally well to organic substances, a point of immense importance.
In a book entitled Considérations générales sur l’analyse organique et sur ses applications [6], Michel Eugene Chevreul (1786–1889), a French chemist, listed the elements known to exist at that time in organic substances (O, Cl, I, N, S, P, C, Si, H, Al, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Mn, and Fe) and cited the processes then available for organic analysis: (1) extraction with a neutral solvent, such as water, alcohol, or aqueous ether; (2) slow distillation or fractional distillation; (3) steam distillation;
(4) passing the substance through a tube heated to incandescence; and (5) analysis with oxygen.
Chevreul was a pioneer in the analysis of organic substances, and his classic research on the com- position of animal fat led to the discovery and naming of stearic and oleic acids.
Dr. William Beaumont (1785–1853), an American Army surgeon stationed at Fort Mackinac, MI, performed classic experiments on gastric digestion that destroyed the concept existing from the time of Hippocrates that food contained a single nutritive component. His experiments were performed during the period 1825–1833 on a Canadian, Alexis St. Martin, whose musket wound afforded direct access to the stomach interior, thereby enabling food to be introduced and subse- quently examined for digestive changes [7].
Among his many notable accomplishments, Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) showed in 1837 that acetaldehyde occurs as an intermediate between alcohol and acetic acid during fermentation of vin- egar. In 1842, he classified foods as either nitrogenous (vegetable fibrin, albumin, casein, and animal flesh and blood) or nonnitrogenous (fats, carbohydrates, and alcoholic beverages). Although this classification is not correct in several respects, it served to distinguish important differences among various foods. He also perfected methods for the quantitative analysis of organic substances, espe- cially by combustion, and he published in 1847 what is apparently the first book on food chemistry, Researches on the Chemistry of Food [8]. Included in this book are accounts of his research on the water-soluble constituents of muscle (creatine, creatinine, sarcosine, inosinic acid, lactic acid, etc.).
It is interesting that the developments just reviewed paralleled the beginning of serious and wide- spread adulteration of food, and it is no exaggeration to state that the need to detect impurities in food was a major stimulus for the development of analytical chemistry in general and analytical food chemistry in particular. Unfortunately, it is also true that advances in chemistry contributed somewhat to the adulteration of food, since unscrupulous purveyors of food were able to profit from the availability of chemical literature, including formulas for adulterated food, and could replace older, less-effective empirical approaches to food adulteration with more efficient approaches based on scientific principles. Thus, the history of food chemistry and food adulteration are closely inter- woven by the threads of several causative relationships, and it is therefore appropriate to consider the matter of food adulteration from a historical perspective [3].
The history of food adulteration in the currently more developed countries of the world falls into three distinct phases. From ancient times to about 1820, food adulteration was not a serious problem, and there was little need for methods of detection. The most obvious explanation for this situation was that food was procured from small businesses or individuals and transactions involved a large measure of interpersonal accountability. The second phase began in the early 1800s, when intentional food adulteration increased greatly in both frequency and seriousness. This develop- ment can be attributed primarily to increased centralization of food processing and distribution, with a corresponding decline in interpersonal accountability, and partly to the rise of modern chemistry, as already mentioned. Intentional adulteration of food remained a serious problem until about 1920, which marks the end of phase two and the beginning of phase three. At this point,
regulatory pressures and effective methods of detection reduced the frequency and seriousness of intentional food adulteration to acceptable levels, and the situation has gradually improved up to the present time.
Some would argue that a fourth phase of food adulteration began about 1950, when foods con- taining legal chemical additives became increasingly prevalent, when the use of highly processed foods increased to a point where they represented a major part of the diet of persons in most of the industrialized countries, and when contamination of some foods with undesirable by-products of industrialization, such as mercury, lead, and pesticides, became of public and regulatory concern.
The validity of this contention is hotly debated and disagreement persists to this day. Nevertheless, the course of action in the next few years seems clear. Public concern over the safety and nutritional adequacy of the food supply continues to evoke changes, both voluntary and involuntary, in the manner in which foods are produced, handled, and processed, and more such actions are inevitable as we learn more about proper handling practices for food and as estimates of maximum tolerable intake of undesirable constituents become more accurate.
The early 1800s was a period of especially intense public concern over the quality and safety of the food supply. This concern, or more properly indignation, was aroused in England by Frederick Accum’s publication A Treatise on Adulterations of Food [9] and by an anonymous publication entitled Death in the Pot [10]. Accum claimed that “Indeed, it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state; and there are some substances which are scarcely ever to be procured genuine” (p. 14). He further remarked, “It is not less lam- entable that the extensive application of chemistry to the useful purposes of life, should have been perverted into an auxiliary to this nefarious traffic [adulteration]” (p. 20).
Although Filby [3] asserted that Accum’s accusations were somewhat overstated, it was true that the intentional adulteration of several foods and ingredients prevailed in the 1800s, as cited by Accum and Filby, including annatto, black pepper, cayenne pepper, essential oils, vinegar, lemon juice, coffee, tea, milk, beer, wine, sugar, butter, chocolate, bread, and confectionary products.
Once the seriousness of food adulteration in the early 1800s was made evident to the public, remedial forces gradually increased. These took the form of new legislation to make adulteration unlawful and greatly expanded efforts by chemists to learn about the native properties of foods, the chemicals commonly used as adulterants, and the means of detecting them. Thus, during the period 1820–1850, chemistry and food chemistry began to assume importance in Europe. This was possible because of the work of the scientists already cited and was stimulated largely by the establishment of chemical research laboratories for young students in various universities and by the founding of new journals for chemical research [1]. Since then, advances in food chemistry have continued at an accelerated pace, and some of these advances, along with causative factors, are mentioned in the following text.
In 1860, the first publicly supported agriculture experiment station was established in Weede, Germany, and W. Hanneberg and F. Stohmann were appointed director and chemist, respectively.
Based largely on the work of earlier chemists, they developed an important procedure for the rou- tine determination of major constituents in food. By dividing a given sample into several portions, they were able to determine moisture content, “crude fat,” ash, and nitrogen. Then, by multiplying the nitrogen value by 6.25, they arrived at its protein content. Sequential digestion with dilute acid and dilute alkali yielded a residue termed “crude fiber.” The portion remaining after removal of protein, fat, ash, and crude fiber was termed “nitrogen-free extract,” and this was believed to repre- sent utilizable carbohydrate. Unfortunately, for many years chemists and physiologists wrongfully assumed that like values obtained by this procedure represented like nutritive value, regardless of the kind of food [11].
In 1871, Jean Baptiste Duman (1800–1884) suggested that a diet consisting of only protein, car- bohydrate, and fat was inadequate to support life.
In 1862, the Congress of the United States passed the Land-Grant College Act, authored by Justin Smith Morrill. This act helped establish colleges of agriculture in the United States and
provided considerable impetus for the training of agricultural and food chemists. Also in 1862, the U.S. Department of Agriculture was established, and Isaac Newton was appointed the first commissioner.
In 1863, Harvey Washington Wiley became chief chemist of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, from which office he led the campaign against misbranded and adulterated food, culminating in passage of the first Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States (1906).
In 1887, agriculture experiment stations were established in the United States following enact- ment of the Hatch Act. Representative William H. Hatch of Missouri, Chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture, was author of the act. As a result, the world’s largest national system of agriculture experiment stations came into existence, and this had a great impact on food research in the United States.
During the first half of the twentieth century, most of the essential dietary substances were dis- covered and characterized, namely, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, and some amino acids.
The development and extensive use of chemicals to aid in the growth, manufacture, and market- ing of foods was an especially noteworthy and contentious event in the middle 1900s.
This historical review, although brief, makes the current food supply seem almost perfect in comparison to that which existed in the 1800s. However, at this writing, several current issues have replaced the historical ones in terms of what the food science community must address in further promoting the wholesomeness and nutritive value of foods, while mitigating the real or perceived threats to the safety of the food supply. These issues include the nature, efficacy, and impact of nonnutrient components in foods, dietary supplements, and botanicals that can promote human health beyond simple nutrition (Chapter 13), molecular engineering of crops (genetically modified organisms [GMOs]) (principally in Chapter 16) and the benefits juxtaposed against the perceived risks to safety and human health, and the comparative nutritive value of crops raised by organic vs.
conventional agricultural methods.
1.3 APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF FOOD CHEMISTRY
Food chemists are typically concerned with identifying the molecular determinants of material properties and chemical reactivity of food matrices and how this understanding is effectively applied to improve formulation, processing, and storage stability of foods. An ultimate objective is to determine cause-and-effect and structure–function relationships among different classes of chemical components. The facts derived from the study of one food or model system can be applied to our understanding of other food products. An analytical approach to food chemistry includes four components, namely, (1) determining those properties that are important characteristics of safe, high-quality foods; (2) determining those chemical and biochemical reactions that have important influences on loss of quality and/or wholesomeness of foods; (3) integrating the first two points so that one understands how the key chemical and biochemical reactions influence quality and safety;
and (4) applying this understanding to various situations encountered during formulation, process- ing, and storage of food.
Safety is the first requisite of any food. In a broad sense, this means a food must be free of any harmful chemical or microbial contaminant at the time of its consumption. For operational pur- poses this definition takes on a more applied form. In the canning industry, “commercial” sterility as applied to low-acid foods means the absence of viable spores of Clostridium botulinum. This in turn can be translated into a specific set of heating conditions for a specific product in a specific package. Given these heating requirements, one can then select specific time–temperature condi- tions that will optimize retention of quality attributes. Similarly, in a product such as peanut butter, operational safety can be regarded primarily as the absence of aflatoxins—carcinogenic substances produced by certain species of molds. Steps taken to prevent growth of the mold in question may or may not interfere with retention of some other quality attribute; nevertheless, conditions producing a safe product must be employed.
A list of quality attributes of food and some alterations they can undergo during processing and storage is given in Table 1.1. The changes that can occur, with the exception of those involving nutri- tive value and safety, are readily evident to the consumer.
Many chemical and biochemical reactions can alter food quality or safety. Some of the more important classes of these reactions are listed in Table 1.2. Each reaction class can involve differ- ent reactants or substrates depending on the specific food and the particular conditions for han- dling, processing, or storage. They are treated as reaction classes because the general nature of the
TABLE 1.1
Classification of Alterations That Can Occur during Handling, Processing, or Storage
Attribute Alteration
Texture Loss of solubility
Loss of water-holding capacity Toughening
Softening
Flavor Development of
Rancidity (hydrolytic or oxidative) Cooked or caramel flavors Other off-flavors Desirable flavors
Color Darkening
Bleaching
Development of desirable colors (e.g., browning of baked goods)
Nutritive value Loss, degradation, or altered bioavailability of proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and other health-promoting components
Safety Generation of toxic substances
Development of substances that are protective to health Inactivation of toxic substances
TABLE 1.2
Some Chemical and Biochemical Reactions That Can Lead to Alteration of Food Quality or Safety
Types of Reaction Examples
Nonenzymic browning Baked goods, dry and intermediate moisture foods Enzymic browning Cut fruits and some vegetables
Oxidation Lipids (off-flavors), vitamin degradation, pigment decoloration, proteins (loss of nutritive value)
Hydrolysis Lipids, proteins, vitamins, carbohydrates, pigments
Metal interactions Complexation (anthocyanins), loss of Mg from chlorophyll, catalysis of oxidation
Lipid isomerization cis → trans isomerization, nonconjugated → conjugated
Lipid cyclization Monocyclic fatty acids
Lipid oxidation–polymerization Foaming during deep-fat frying
Protein denaturation Egg white coagulation, enzyme inactivation Protein cross-linking Loss of nutritive value during alkali processing Polysaccharide synthesis and degradation In plants postharvest
Glycolytic changes Animal postmortem, plant tissue postharvest
substrates or reactants is similar for all foods. Thus, nonenzymic browning involves reaction of car- bonyl compounds, which can arise from existing reducing sugars or from diverse reactions, such as oxidation of ascorbic acid, hydrolysis of starch, or oxidation of lipids. Oxidation may involve lipids, proteins, vitamins, or pigments and, more specifically, oxidation of lipids may involve triacylglyc- erols in one food or phospholipids in another. Discussion of these reactions in detail will occur in subsequent chapters of this book.
The reactions listed in Table 1.3 cause the alterations listed in Table 1.1. Integration of the infor- mation contained in both tables can lead to an understanding of the causes of food deterioration.
Deterioration of food usually consists of a series of primary events followed by secondary events, which, in turn, become evident as altered quality attributes (Table 1.1). Examples of sequences of this type are shown in Table 1.3. Note particularly that a given quality attribute can be altered as a result of several different primary events.
The sequences in Table 1.3 can be applied in two directions. Operating from left to right, one can consider a particular primary event, the associated secondary events, and the effect on a qual- ity attribute. Alternatively, one can determine the probable cause(s) of an observed quality change (column 3, Table 1.3) by considering all primary events that could be involved and then isolating, by appropriate chemical tests, the key primary event. The utility of constructing such sequences is that they encourage one to approach problems of food alteration in an analytical manner. The physi- cal and chemical properties of major food constituents, that is, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, are invariably altered during processing. These changes involve both intra- and intercomponent interactions/reactions. Major reactions that proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids undergo during the processing and handling of foods are summarized in Figures 1.1 through 1.3. These complex sets of reactions/interactions play a crucial role in the development of both desirable and undesirable sensory and nutritional properties of foods.
Figure 1.4 is a simplistic summary of reactions and interactions of the major constituents of food that lead to deterioration of food quality. Each class of compound can undergo its own characteristic type of deterioration. Noteworthy is the role that carbonyl compounds play in many deterioration processes. They arise mainly from lipid oxidation and carbohydrate degradation and can lead to the
TABLE 1.3
Examples of Cause-and-Effect Relationships Pertaining to Food Alteration during Handling, Storage, and Processing
Primary Causative Event Secondary Event Attribute Influenced (see Table 1.1) Hydrolysis of lipids Free fatty acids react with protein. Texture, flavor, nutritive value Hydrolysis of polysaccharides Sugars react with protein. Texture, flavor, color, nutritive value Oxidation of lipids Oxidation products react with many
other constituents.
Texture, flavor, color, nutritive value;
toxic substances can be generated Bruising of fruit Cells break, enzymes are released,
and oxygen is accessible.
Texture, flavor, color, nutritive value Heating of horticultural
products
Cell walls and membranes lose integrity, acids are released, and enzymes become inactive.
Texture, flavor, color, nutritive value
Heating of muscle tissue Proteins denature and aggregate, and enzymes become inactive.
Texture, flavor, color, nutritive value cis → trans conversion in lipids Enhanced rate of polymerization
during deep-fat frying.
Excessive foaming during deep-fat frying, diminished nutritive value and bioavailability of lipids, solidification of frying oil
destruction of nutritional value, to off-colors, and to off-flavors. Of course, these same reactions lead to desirable flavors and colors during the cooking of many foods.
1.3.1 AnAlysisof situAtions EncountErEdduringthE storAgEAnd ProcEssingof food Having before us a description of the attributes of high-quality, safe foods, the significant chemi- cal reactions involved in the deterioration of food, and the relationship between the two, we can
Proteins
pH control
Proteinases Anaerobic
H2O H2O
Δ
H2S Alkaline
Δ
Denaturation/
aggregation – Hydrolysis
– Altered functionality Inactivation of enzymes and some antinutrient
– Loss of enzyme activity
– Denaturation/aggregation – Insolubilization
– Gelation
– Altered functionality
Insoluble proteins with reduced nutritive
value – Altered functionality – Plasteins
Tannins – Denaturation/aggregation
– Racemization – Crosslinking – Hydrolysis – Deamidation – Altered functionality
– Denaturation/aggregation – Crosslinking
(isopeptide bonds) – Altered functionality
– Noncovalent lipid–protein complexes – Altered texture
– Oxidized A.A residues and denaturation products – Free radical-induced cross- linking/polymerization – Disulfide crosslinking – Reduced nutritive value – Altered texture
– Maillard and Strecker degradation products with reduced protein nutritive value, colors, flavors, pot, toxic compounds
– Altered texture
– Crosslinked proteins – Altered texture Lipids Oxidation Oxidized
lipids
Heterocyclic amines (mutagens)
Aldehydes or sugars Carbonyls
or lipids peroxides Amino acids,
peptides Neutral,
severe
Δ Acid
Δ
Acyl transfer Freezing
Animal tissue (creatinine),
severe Δ –
–
FIGURE 1.1 Major reactions that proteins can undergo during the processing and handling of foods. (From Taoukis, P. and Labuza, T.P., in: Food Chemistry, 3rd edn., Fennema, O., ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, p. 1015.)
now begin to consider how to apply this information to situations encountered during the storage and processing of food.
The variables that are important during the storage and processing of food are listed in Table 1.4.
Temperature is perhaps the most important of these variables because of its broad influence on all types of chemical reactions. The effect of temperature on an individual reaction can be estimated from the Arrhenius equation, k = Ae−ΔE/RT. Data conforming to the Arrhenius equation yield a straight line when log k is plotted vs. 1/T. The parameter ΔE is the activation energy, which represents the
Carbohydrate-rich tissue
Vitamin C in fruit
juice
Hemicelluloses
Sucrose
Pentoses
Furfural and other compounds
Colors and
flavors 5-Hydroxy-
methylfurfural and others
Proteins, amino acids, –NH2
– Reduced protein nutritive value – Potentially toxic
compounds Fructose
Δ
Δ
Glucose isomerase
Glucose
Gluconolactone Δ
Δ
Glucose oxidase Oligosaccharides
Δ
Chemically modified
starches Δ
Gelatinized starch
Minerals/
phytate complexes
Firmer tissue Softened
tissue Sugar Gels
Cellulose
Pure
In tissue
Pectic substances Native starch
H2O
H2O
H2O Δ
H+
H+
H+ H+
anaerobic
Δ H+
H+
Enzymes Δ
Enzymes
Pectin methylesterase
Enzymes or H+
Ca2+Δ
H2O Δ
H2O
Enzymes or H+
FIGURE 1.2 Major reactions that carbohydrates can undergo during the processing and handling of foods.
(From Taoukis, P. and Labuza, T.P., in: Food Chemistry, 3rd edn., Fennema, O., ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, p. 1016.)
free energy change required to elevate a chemical entity from a ground state to a transition state, whereupon reaction can occur. Arrhenius plots in Figure 1.5 represent reactions important in food deterioration. It is evident that food reactions generally conform to the Arrhenius relationship over a limited intermediate temperature range but that deviations from this relationship can occur at high or low temperatures [12]. Thus, it is important to remember that the Arrhenius relationship for food systems is valid only over a range of temperature that has been experimentally verified.
Lipids
Proteins
Hydroperoxides
Vitamins
Inactive vitamins
Altered flavors
Decolored pigments
Proteins O
C
Aldehydes, alcohols, acids, epoxides, ketones, cyclic fatty acid
monomers, dimers, polymers, oxidized sterols, etc.
– Protein disulfide cross-linking – Altered texture
– Altered texture – Oxidized protein – Reduced nutritive value – Loss of enzyme
activity Peroxides
(trans., conjugated) Flavors Pigments
Proteins
Hydrogenated lipid or biohydrog.
Cat. (enzymes.
Moderate to severe heat NaOCH3 and others)
Δ H2, Δ, P, Ni
Interesterified lipid
Acyclic and cyclic dimers, ketones
Oxidation
H+ or OH– and Δ Lipases
or
Fatty acids – Noncovalent
lipid–protein complexes – Altered texture
Maillard and Strecker degradation products – Altered colors and flavors – Reduced proteins nutritive values – Potentially toxic compounds – Altered texture
–
FIGURE 1.3 Major reactions that lipids can undergo during the processing and handling of foods. (From Taoukis, P. and Labuza, T.P., in: Food Chemistry, 3rd edn., Fennema, O., ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, p. 1017.)
Deviations from the Arrhenius relationship can occur because of the following events, most of which are induced by either high or low temperatures: (1) enzyme activity may be lost, (2) the reac- tion pathway or rate-limiting step may change or may be influenced by a competing reaction(s), (3) the physical state of the system may change (e.g., by freezing), or (4) one or more of the reactants may become depleted.
Another important factor in Table 1.4 is time. During storage of a food product, one frequently wants to know how long the food can be expected to retain a specified level of quality. Therefore, one is interested in time with respect to the integral of chemical and/or microbiological changes that occur during a specified storage period, and in the way these changes combine to determine a specified storage life for the product. During processing, one is often interested in the time it takes to inactivate a particular population of microorganisms or in how long it takes for a reaction to pro- ceed to a specified extent. For example, it may be of interest to know how long it takes to produce a desired brown color in potato chips during frying. To accomplish this, attention must be given to temperature change with time, that is, dT/dt. This relationship is important because it allows the determination of the extent to which the reaction rate changes as temperature of the food matrix changes during the course of processing. If ΔE of the reaction and temperature profile of the food are known, an integrative analysis affords a prediction of the net accumulation of a reaction product.
This is also of interest in foods that deteriorate by more than one means, such as lipid oxidation and nonenzymic browning. If the products of the browning reaction are antioxidants, it is important to know whether the relative rates of these reactions are such that a significant interaction will occur between them.
L
C
P
P
Reactive carbonyls
Peroxides
Off-flavors Off-colors Loss of nutritive
value Loss of texture O2, Heat
Catalysts Heat, strong acid
or base
Reactivity dependent on water activity and temperature
Oxidized P
Pigments, vitamins, and
flavors
FIGURE 1.4 Summary of chemical interactions among major food constituents: L, lipid pool (triacylg- lycerols, fatty acids, and phospholipids); C, carbohydrate pool (polysaccharides, sugars, organic acids, etc.);
P, protein pool (proteins, peptides, amino acids, and other N-containing substances).
TABLE 1.4
Important Factors Governing the Stability of Foods during Handling, Processing, and Storage
Product Factors Environmental Factors
Chemical properties of individual constituents (including catalysts), oxygen content, pH water activity, Tg, and Wg
Temperature (T); time (t); composition of the atmosphere;
chemical, physical, or biological treatments imposed;
exposure to light; contamination; physical abuse Note: Water activity = p/po, where p is the partial pressure of water vapor above the food and po is the vapor pressure of pure
water; Tg is the glass transition temperature; Wg is the product water content at Tg.
Another variable, pH, influences the rates of many chemical and enzymic reactions. Extreme pH values are usually required for severe inhibition of microbial growth or enzymic processes, and these conditions can result in acceleration of acid- or base-catalyzed reactions. In contrast, even a relatively small pH change can cause profound changes in the quality of some foods, for example, muscle.
The composition of the product is important since this determines the reactants available for chemical transformation. Also important is how cellular vs. noncellular and homogeneous vs. het- erogeneous food systems influence the disposition and reactivity of reactants. Particularly important from a quality standpoint is the relationship that exists between composition of the raw material and composition of the finished product. For example, (1) the manner in which fruits and vegetables are handled postharvest can influence sugar content, and this, in turn, influences the degree of browning obtained during dehydration or deep-fat frying; (2) the manner in which animal tissues are handled postmortem influences the extents and rates of glycolysis and ATP degradation, and these in turn can influence storage life, water-holding capacity, toughness, flavor, and color; and (3) the blending
Nonenzymic a
b c
Enzyme catalyzed
Log of observed reaction rate constant
d
Temperature (K–1) 0°C
FIGURE 1.5 Conformity of important deteriorative reactions in food to the Arrhenius relationship. (a) Above a certain value of T, there may be deviations from linearity due to a change in the path of the reac- tion. (b) As the temperature is lowered below the freezing point of the system, the ice phase (essentially pure) enlarges, and the fluid phase, which contains all the solutes, diminishes. This concentration of solutes in the unfrozen phase can decrease reaction rates (supplement the effect of decreasing temperature) or increase reac- tion rates (oppose the effect of declining temperature), depending on the nature of the system (see Chapter 2).
(c) For an enzymic reaction there is a high temperature at which the enzyme is denatured, resulting in loss of its activity, and (d) in the vicinity of the freezing point of water where subtle changes, such as the dissociation of an enzyme complex, can lead to a sharp decline in reaction rate.
