IN DISARRAY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
DESY PRAMUSIWI
Student Number: 054214084
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
i
IN DISARRAY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
DESY PRAMUSIWI
Student Number: 054214084
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
iii
v
I nt el l i genc e pl us Char ac t er ,
That i s t he Goal of Tr ue Educ at i on
(Dr. Martin Luther king)
None but Us c a n Cha ng e Our De stiny
(Anonym)
Don’t be Afraid
vi
g{|á |á ãÜ|ààxÇ
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, my gigantic expression goes to Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for their never ending blessing and guidance throughout my whole life, and especially during the years I spent in finishing my study. I would like to thank to the writer’s advisor, Modesta Luluk Artika Windrasti, S.S. for the advice and guidance which had helped me in the process of writing my thesis. I also would like to thank my co-advisor, Dewi Widyastuti, S.Pd., M.Hum., for giving me a precise correction and suggestion to complete my thesis. I thank my thesis examiner, Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum, for her questions and useful suggestions to enrich my thesis.
My gratitude expression for Sanata Dharma University, a place where I can develop my intellectuality, a springboard how to be a real human through the people I have met there. All the lecturers of the Department of English Letters of Sanata Dharma University deserve my thankful expression since they had given me knowledge when I was still a student. I say ‘thank you’ to the secretariat officer, Mbak Ninik, since she had helped me do all the administration process patiently and friendly.
I would also thank Jhoni Frederikus for his help in searching the source-books from websites since hardly could I find them in the library. The source-books are very useful. I also thank Mbak Sari for the discussion and the books she lent. I realize that without those books, it is hard for me to finish her thesis.
viii
every move and every step I take. For all of my friends in 2005, I say ‘thank you’ for their friendship.
I would also thank Efrida Ita (Lori) and Ratri Nugraheni. I say ‘thank you’ for their supports, friendship and all of the experiences that we have done.
I would never forget my best friends, Septiana Ratna Dewi (Brind), Norie Paramitha (Oie), and Nila Sukmaning Rahayu (Ella). I say ‘thank you’ for their supports, their shoulders when I am crying, and having problems. I feel very grateful for the moment that I have shared together.
My gigantic gratitude goes to my soul mate, Wahyu Adi “Putra” Ginting, who has played some roles in my life: he is a ‘brother’ who gives guidance and advice to make decisions in my life, a ‘teacher’ who helps read my thesis, give sharp yet constructive comments, and edit my thesis, an ‘intellectual mate’ in discussing everything, and the ‘darling’ whom I hope to spend more time with.
Lastly, to my brothers: Eko Prasetyo, Dwi Indarjo, and Tri Yuliadi Budianta, I say ‘thank you’ for their supports and their funds so that I can continue and finish my study here. Finally, I give my gratitude and affection to my mother M.X Sukarni, and my father F.X Suradja, to whom this thesis is dedicated.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE……… i
APPROVAL PAGE ……… ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE………..….. iii
Lembar Pernyataan Persetujuan Publikasi Karya Ilmiah ... iv
MOTTO PAGE……… v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……… vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……… ix
ABSTRACT……….. xi
ABSTRAK ……… xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……… 1
A. Background of the Study ……….. 1
B. Problem Formulation ……… 5
C. Objectives of the Study ………. 5
D. Definition of Terms ……….. 6
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ………... 8
A. Review of Related Studies………... 8
B. Review of Related Theories……….. 12
1. Theory of Character and Characterization……….. 12
2. Theory of Liberal Feminism…...……… 15
C. Review of Patriarchal Society in Japan in the Taisho Era (1912-1926) ……….. 18
D. Review on Women Movement in Japan ……….. 21
E. Theoretical Framework ……… 24
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY……….. 25
A. Object of the Study………... 25
B. Approach of the Study……….. 26
C. Method of the Study……….…… 27
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS……….. 30
A. The Characterization of Noe Ito………... 30
1. Intelligent…... 30
2. Critical……….... 35
3. Courageous……….……….... 38
B. B. Noe Ito’s Background of Feminist Ideas...……….. 45
1. Patriarchal System ………...………. 45
2. Education Development………... 49
3. Intellectuality Development ……….. 51
C. Noe Ito’s Ideas of Feminism Implemented in her Life………… 57
x
2. Refusing Domestic Chores…...……… 59
3. Developing Female Writers………. 61
4. Criticizing the Subordination of Women…………... …… 62
5. Declaring Herself as ‘New Woman’ of Seito……….. 64
6. Influencing Women’s Liberation………. 66
D. The Consequences that Noe Ito and her Families Had as the Result of Practicing Feminist Ideas ……… 69
1. Humiliation ………...…. 69
2. Disharmonious Relationship ……….………. 73
3. Poverty ……… 75
4. Murder ……… 76
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION …….………. 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. 84
APPENDICES ……….. 86
Appendix 1 Summary of “Beauty in Disarray”………. 86
xi
ABSTRACT
DESY PRAMUSIWI. Revealing Consequences of Practicing Liberal Feminist Ideas as Experienced by the Main Character Noe Ito in Harumi Setouchi’s
Beauty in Disarray. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2009.
The Taisho era (1912 - 1926) in Japan was a period of the socio-liberal turbulence and radical change. Almost all of radical movements were done by the socialists, anarchists, and feminists. They demanded changes in governance system, from feudal into democratic one, and also changes in the social order of the society. They got much opposition from the government. Many of them ended up being murdered because of their actions. Based on this background, this research tries to reveal the life of one of the feminists living in that era, Noe Ito, in Harumi Setouchi’s Beauty in Disarray. The complex life of Noe Ito – beginning from the development of her way of thinking and her characterization, the liberal feminism ideology she practiced, her involvement in the huge movements in Japan, and the consequences as the result of her actions – are very interesting to be discussed.
There are four problems formulated in this research. The first problem is how Noe’s characteristics are described in the novel. The second one is how Noe Ito got the idea of feminism and the background of her learning feminist thoughts perceived from her experiences and the education she got from her closed influential people. The result of the analysis of the second problem will be used to answer the third problem: how the ideology of liberal feminism was practiced in Noe Ito’s everyday life through her way of thinking and her attitude. The fourth problem is revealing what kind of consequences Noe experienced and her family as the result of practicing the ideology of liberal feminism.
The writer used feminism approach to surge those problems above. In addition, the theory of character and characterization, theory of liberal feminism, background patriarchal society in Taisho era, and review on women movement in Japan were needed in this research. Meanwhile, the method used was library research.
xii
ABSTRAK
DESY PRAMUSIWI. Revealing Consequences of Practicing Liberal Feminist Ideas as Experienced by the Main Character Noe Ito in Harumi Setouchi’s
Beauty in Disarray. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra,
Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2009.
Era Taisho (1912-1926) merupakan suatu masa terjadinya pergolakan sosial liberal serta perubahan radikal di Jepang. Hampir seluruh dari pergerakan radikal ini dilakukan oleh kaum sosialis, anarkis, dan feminis. Mereka menuntut perubahan sistem pemerintahan, yang feudal, menuju yang demokratis dan juga perubahan dalam tatanan masyarakatnya. Tidak sedikit dari tindakan mereka ini yang mendapat perlawanan dari pemerintah. Banyak dari mereka yang mati dibunuh karena aksi mereka. Berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut, penelitian ini mencoba mengungkapkan kisah salah seorang tokoh feminis yang hidup di masa itu, Noe Ito, dalam novel Beauty in Disarray karya Harumi Setouchi. Hidup Noe Ito yang sangat kompleks – mulai dari perkembangan pola pikir dan karakternya, ideologi feminisme liberal yang dipraktikkannya, keterlibatannya dalam pergerakan-pergerakan besar di Jepang, dan konsekuensi dari tindakan-tindakannya itu – sangat menarik untuk dikaji.
Terdapat empat rumusan masalah dalam skripsi ini. Pertama, bagaimana karakter Noe Ito dideskripsikan dalam cerita. Kedua, bagaimana Noe Ito mendapatkan pemikiran feminisme, serta latar belakang Noe mempelajari pemikiran feminisme itu ditinjau dari pengalaman-pengalaman serta didikan dari orang-orang terdekatnya. Hasil dari analisis kedua ini digunakan untuk menjawab masalah ketiga, yaitu: bagaimana ideologi feminisme liberal dipraktikkan dalam kehidupan Noe sehari-hari lewat pemikiran dan tindak-tanduknya. Keempat, menguak konsekuensi apa saja yang dialami oleh Noe dan keluarganya, sebagai akibat dari praktik ideologi feminisme liberal itu.
Penulis menggunakan pendekatan feminis liberal untuk membedah permasalahan-permasalahan di atas. Selain itu, teori tokoh dan penokohan, teori feminisme liberal, latar belakang masyarakat patriarki di era Taisho, serta tinjauan mengenai pergerakan wanita di Jepang dibutuhkan dalam analisis ini. Sementara itu, metode yang digunakan adalah studi pustaka.
xiii
hubungan, adalah pembunuhan atas dirinya. Semua itu merupakan konsekuensi yang harus ia dan keluarganya tanggung.
1
A. Background of the Study
Modernization, a concept that revolved for the first time in the West, has given so much influence to the world; and it has spread ubiquitously and systematically from country to country. Modernization does not only effect the development of science and technology but also ideologies. Western thoughts, among which are Marxism, Socialism, Anarchism, and Feminism, have developed so significantly, breaking through western their socio-geo-cultural contexts, that they also exist in the eastern countries. These western ideologies are learned through the organization of formal education, whose systems are basically adopted from the West. Western thoughts urge their intervention in the eastern people’s way of thinking. Nevertheless, it is quite confusing to judge which side starts the case: whether it is the West deliberately exerting the ideologies, or the East adopting them.
In Indonesia, especially in R.A Kartini era, Feminism gave influences through the formal education, which came and was held by the Dutch. R.A. Kartini, who had been ‘enlightened’ via education from West, a place she adored so much, was influenced by the Dutch feminist discourses. She appeared as the iconic figure, struggling for equity between women and men. For those reason, Dr. Joost Cote, in Gadis Arivia’s Feminisme: Sebuah Kata Hati, stated that Kartini was a feminist (2005: 44). To add, Arivia stated that Kartini was a liberal feminist because of her unique human idea: to be autonomous and free in making her own decision based on her rationalities (2005: 47). In the spatial and temporal context of Kartini, what she was doing can be classified as an effort to enhance a change, so to speak a radical shift, to the very tradition inherited from generation to generation.
As for the development of an ideology, it is always common to have it changed contextually from time to time. Let us take Feminism in Japan as an example. Feminism in the years of Taisho era was different to that after the First or the Second World War. Since the idea is adopted, therefore Feminism develops differently; western Feminism, in the practice, is different from Asian one. Subsequently, Asian Feminisms are different one to another since they are applied in the context of a different culture. Ueno Chizuko, a feminist from Japan, stated that
Asian women do have significant power, although it is not a form of power recognized by non-Asian feminist. I think that we need a far greater sensitivity to cultural differences. It is possible for Asian women to develop a Feminism that is the product of their own cultural context and meaningful to them (Buckley, 1979: 278).
Here, Ueno Chizuko, a contemporary Japanese feminist, is aware of cultural contexts as a feature of constructing an ‘imported’ ideology to be a more practically meaningful product.
contextualized to Japanese culture. Western ideology, to a broad extent, is very contrast to Japanese ideology. As the result, Noe Ito’s idea of feminism was quite different if it was compared to the idea of contemporary Japanese feminism.
Hence, in the discussion of Noe Ito, the main character of Setouchi’s
Beauty in Disarray, one must not use contemporary Japanese feminism, which has been culturally contextualized, as the point of view to see the feminist ideas depicted in the life of Noe. Instead, considering the fact that Noe lived in Taisho Era, an era when Liberal Feminism was developing in Japan, it would be more reasonable to use liberal feminism as the telescope to perceive feminist ideas practiced by Noe.
Reading the life of Noe Ito, one of the members of the first Japanese feminist movement, as narrated in Beauty in Disarray, one would be ‘distracted’ considering the consequences Noe had to bear as the result of practicing feminist ideas through her attitude, writing, and behavior. Related to this study, the writer decided to discuss consequences as the major problem. Consequences became one of the interesting topics in studying Beauty in Disarray since, in addition to the concept that every action or attitude always result in consequences, it is through consequences that the reader of this novel is able to see the dialectics happening when an established culture is challenged. In this case, Noe Ito was the ‘minor’ person; through her ideas she tried to rebel and against the ‘status quo’ (major), which is the Japanese old-fashioned tradition.
women’s rights and freedom. Moreover, by examining kinds of consequences that the character Noe Ito bore as the results of her actions, readers will be able to become more critical in perceiving the phenomenon of a cultural dialogue taking place in a particular society. Lastly, this thesis tries to disclose the whole life of the character as a feminist, not only seeing her ideas, but also about the consequences for practicing their ‘idealism’ in the ‘real’ society.
B. Problem Formulation
To make the discussion clearer, as well as to limit the scope of the study, the writer has formulated four problems. They are listed as follows.
1. How is the character Noe Ito described in the story? 2. What are Noe Ito’s backgrounds of feminist ideas?
3. What are the ideas of feminism found in Noe Ito’s mind and attitude? 4. What are the consequences that Noe Ito and her families had as the result
of practicing feminist ideas?
C. Objectives of the Study
characterization of the character supports the answer for the next problems. The second objective is to find out how the character got acquainted with feminist ideas, through clarifying the character’s backgrounds of the feminist ideas. The third objective is to find out the feminist ideas in the character attitudes, ways of thinking, and behaviors. The writer will attempt to see the feminist ideas practiced by the main character through her way of thinking, attitude and behavior in society, and writings. The three objectives above will be helpful to understand the consequences that the main character and her family endured by practicing feminist ideas in her life.
D. Definition of Terms
It is important to know the definition of the terms frequently used in this study in order to be able to understand its content, as well as to avoid misunderstandings to specific technical terms. Thence, the writer provides the definitions of prominent terminologies, which are taken from some reliable sources as described below:
1. Character
2. Feminism
Cited in Peter Barry’s Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory,Toril Moi explains the different concept of ‘feminist’, ‘female’, and ‘feminine’. ‘Feminist’ means a political position; ‘female’ is a matter of biology; and ‘feminine’ is a set of culturally defined characteristics (2002: 122).
3. Liberal Feminism
The root of liberal feminism is the idea of liberalism. According to Rosemarie Putnam Tong, “the goal of liberal feminism is to create a just and compassionate society in which freedom flourishes, only in such a society can women as well as men thrive” (1998: 12).
4. Consequences
8
This chapter consists of three basic points. The first point is the review on related studies, including the comment and the interview, done by the people conducted for or related to the works of Harumi Setouchi. The second point is the review on related theories, describing the theories used as the ‘knife’ to surge the work. Mainly, there are two theories to be discussed here. The last point is the theoretical framework, which will explain the contribution of the theories in solving the problems formulated in this study.
A. Review of Related Studies
The first criticism in the form of appreciation is administered by V.S. Naipaul for the writer Harumi Setouchi and her novel; and, in the form of comment, the one conducted by Sanford Goldstein. As stated in The Japan Journal, V.S. Naipaul gave praises for Setouchi’s capability in her Buddhist teaching and writing, especially in her novels:
One of the subtlest Buddhist teachings," he said, "invites us to go 'farther' and 'beyond.' Setouchi Harumi, today Jakucho nun—that is to say, 'who listens to quietness'—with her changing writing, has accomplished it. In her novels we find the entire fluctuating world with its wonders and its miseries and 'the beyond': the land of soundless music... (http://www.japanjournal.jp/tjje/show_art.php?INDyear=06&INDmon=09& artid=2736659c52b077859498a05c6936779f)
V.S. Naipaul was a member of selection committee and also the one who became a former winner of the Nonino Prize, an award granted to Setouchi. His reason in choosingBeauty in Disarray to be awarded the Prize was because of its being a critical biographical life of Ito Noe. As stated in the journal, Noe Ito was a writer or a critic on women’s liberationist who turned into anarchist of the 1910s to 1920s with Sakae Osugi, an anarchist. The novel traces the lives of a person who was brutally killed by a military office during the chaos of the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923.
(http://www.japanjournal.jp/tjje/show_art.php?INDyear=06&INDmon=09&artid= 2736659c52b077859498a05c6936779f).
Finally, Naipaul appreciated the work by stating that “Beauty in Disarray
is truly admirable for the dynamism of the characterizations and portraits of remarkable people who find in themselves the means to transform one ancient civilization in an extraordinary period…”
(http://www.japanjournal.jp/tjje/show_art.php?INDyear=06&INDmon=09&artid= 2736659c52b077859498a05c6936779f).
The writer concludes Naipaul’s comment: that Harumi Setouchi has successfully created a portrait of remarkable character through the outstanding portrait of the people during Taisho period, such as Noe Ito, Haruko Hiratsuka, and Sakae Osugi, who gave a greater influence in their society at that time.
The second criticism is based on the interview with Sanford Goldstein, conducted by Patricia Prime which first appeared in three issues of the 2004 TSA
Quarterly Newsletter. (http://www.tankasocietyofamerica.com/Interview%20Goldstein%20Part%20I.ht
m). Sanford, a professor of English at Purdue University, showed that Harumi Setouchi’s Beauty in Disarray was a novel talking about women liberation and women movement in Japan.
I admire all the poets I translated. I became a part of them. I could feel Akiko’s feelings of liberation and Mokichi’s struggles in order to deepen tanka…I realized early that there was a woman’s liberation movement in Japan, so later when I learned of Harumi Setouchi’s work entitled Beauty in Disarray, I wanted to translate it.
Again, Sanford Goldstein also gave comment on Harumi Setouchi’s
Beauty in Disarray: “It’s a novel no one seems want to read, but it is a historical novel of great importance in spite of the fact that no one in the West seems to know about it”.
Moreover, as stated in the ‘Introduction’ of Harumi Setouchi’s Beauty in Disarray by the novel’s translators Sanford Goldstein and Kazuji Ninomiya,
Beauty in Disarray points out the major issues about feminist movement through the publication of the woman magazine, Seito and through the freedom of love shown by the complicated love triangle through the discourse of Japan in the Taisho era.
Beauty in Disarray takes one of its major subjects the development and growth of Seito. Furthermore, at the very core of the feminist struggle during the Meiji and Taisho eras is the drama of several complicated love triangles, in addition to the anarchist and socialist movements of the time at that time. (Setouchi, 1993: 13)
In conclusion, this study is totally different from the criticisms that have already been discussed above. This study reviews the work of Harumi Setouchi’s
B. Review of Related Theories
Basically, theories are needed as the tool to analyze the work or to become a basic thought of the analysis. There will be two main divided theories explained here. The first theory reviewed is theory of character and characterization. The second review is the theories of liberal feminism through the definitions some liberal feminists have attempted to postulate. For the additional information, the writer presents two important points: the first one is the review on patriarchal society and a review on women movement. The context of time and place for both are Taisho era and Japan.
1. Theory of Character and Characterization
Talking about the works of literature, such as drama, prose, or even poetry is not far from the persons who are described or talked about in the work. The readers usually call that person as the character(s). Cited in Mastering English Literature by Richard Gill, there is an important distinction between Character
In his book, Gill clarifies some aspects in studying the character. The first one is how the characters speak. The way the character speaks is through repeating certain words and phrases, using lots of illustrations, relying upon common sayings and proverbs, and saying a great deal or very little. The second point is how the characters think. Of course, when the characters are speaking, they are thinking. How the readers perceive a character’s thoughts is not merely related to what he or she is thinking but can also be acquainted with the manner of thoughts – how the character’s mind is made up, and how he or she approaches problems and challenges (Gill, 1995:127). Next is the appearance of the characters. It deals with the verbal picture of the characters, for example the female character is pretty and healthy, then the particular feature that makes her pretty (Gill, 1995, 129). Another point is how the character dresses. Here, clothes have several functions in novel; clothes as an expression of personality, clothes as an indication of social status, clothes as an indication to help create the atmosphere of a book, clothes as an essential element in the development of the plot. Next point is the social standing of characters. In general, class is a kind of rank: a rank established by wealth, social standing and culture. The class evident can be seen from the way the character dress, in employment, education, (sometimes) names, and so on. The other point is what the characters do. The way authors establish the character’ personality is through what a character is shown as acting or reacting.
an author can represent the characterization of characters in literary works, namely:
1. ‘Personal description’, the author can describe a character by using the appearance and clothes. The readers will get only a visible look of a character, like parts of the body of the character and the clothes he or she wears
2. ‘Character as seen by another’, the author can describe a character through the view, opinions, attitudes, and comments of other characters. The readers will get a reflected image of the characters the author means 3. ‘Speech’, the author can describe a character by giving readers an insight
into the characteristics through the way he or speaks and the language he or she uses. The reader enables to analyze from the sentences the character uses
4. ‘Past life’, the author can provide a clue to events that help to shape characteristics by giving the readers the character’s past life. This is quite helpful to analyze the motives that the character has when he has particular characteristic or does something special
6. ‘Reaction’, the author can describe characteristics by showing how a character responds to various situations and events. The reaction may give a clue to what characteristics a character has
7. ‘Direct comment’, the author may give comments and descriptions on the characteristics of the character directly to readers. This becomes the best way for the readers to visualize the characteristics because they know what exactly the author wants to reveal
8. ‘Thought’, the author gives readers direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about. There, she or he can tell readers what different people are thinking of. Such thing cannot be seen but can be represented through the speech and attitudes. The readers then are in privileged position; they have a secret listening device plugged in to the inmost thoughts of a character in a novel
9. ‘Mannerism’, the author can characterize a character through the mannerisms, habits or idiosyncrasies.
2. Theory of Liberal Feminism
form of an intellectual tendency with or without the benefit of social movement (Beasley, 1999: xiii).
As the opening discussion about liberal feminism, Rosemary Putnam Tong clarifies that liberalism is the school of political thought from which liberal feminism has evolved (Tong, 1998: 10). The root of liberal feminism is to be focused on welfare liberalism. In fact, modern political goal is equality of opportunity that is most closely associated with liberal feminism. According to Tong, the overall goal of liberal feminism is “to create a just and compassionate society in which freedom flourishes”. She adds that “only in such a society can women as well as men thrive” (Tong, 1998: 12).
liberal feminist, in Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Right of Woman, that Wollstonecraft urged women to become autonomous decision makers through the academy. She decided well-educated women did not need to be economically self-sufficient or politically active in order to be autonomous (1998: 14). What Wollstonecraft mostly wanted for woman is personhood, meaning that woman is not the toy of men, or a mere means or an instrument for someone else’s happiness or perfection. Rather, she added that woman is an ‘end’, a rational agent whose dignity consists in having the capacity for self-determination (1998: 15).
The development of liberal feminism in the twentieth century is focusing on liberating women in sexual equality, or in other term, gender Justice (1998: 32). Betty Friedan, a contemporary liberal feminist, stated that contemporary women needed to find meaningful work, in the full-time, public workforce. She added that a condition where a woman that is a wife and a mother has no time for career is to limit the woman’s development as a full human person (cited in Tong, 1998: 26). Indeed, contemporary liberal feminists wish to free women from oppressive gender roles -- putting women in a minor place, or no place at all, in academy, the forum, and market place.
The main point of liberal feminism is the freedom on the development of the rationalities. Therefore, in conclusion, Gadis Arivia stated that liberal feminist thought is focusing their struggle on the ideas of human uniqueness, which is autonomous, which can make their own choice base on their own rationalities (Arivia, 2005: 47).
C. Review on Patriarchal Society in Japan in Taisho era (1912-1926)
1. The Concept of Patriarchy Found in the System of ie
Cite in The Japanese Mind, Hall and Beardsley define ie as “a
of household, they had the authority to decide the action of its members and had absolute power of control over family and its property. For example, their consent is needed when a family member is to get married. The members of the families had to obey their order respectfully; they were given privileged treatment and were normally served by other families members; their meal had to be richer, they had to be welcomed when they came home; and their seat at the table had to be higher than that of other families members (Davies & Ikeno, 2002: 120). Moreover, the Japanese people were trained to accept system; and, since childhood, they were taught about their position in the hierarchy of ie.
Since patriarchism was one of the characteristics of ie, the position of women was likely to be low in the system. They believed that they were inferior to men. Even if they were married well, women were in a weak position because they could be sent away for any reason. Moreover, they had to adjust themselves to the customs of their husbands’ ie and worked hard to satisfy their husbands’ parents; and, their duty was bearing children (Davies & Ikeno, 2002: 121). The most important is that, if wives are not able to fulfill these obligations, they were often forced to be divorce.
2. The Concept of Patriarchy Found in Confucianism Thought
into complete subordination of men (Reischauer, 1977: 205). Moreover, Reischauer adds that Confucianism, which was the product of a patriarchal and strongly male-dominated society in China, saw women as important for bearing children and perpetuating the family more than as helpmates and objects of love (1977: 205).
Since Confucianism was based on the concept of patriarchy, the Confucianist thought about woman was very bad. They said that women were totally different from men; their position was lower than men. Moreover, women, in the eyes of the Confuciusianist, were just like servants for men.
Women are as different from men as earth from heaven. Of all social intercourse, that with women and servants is the most difficult. If you are too free with them, they became indiscreet, while you keep away, they become discontent. (Straelen, 1940: 43)
In Confucians philosophy, there were three concepts of obedience for women: they should obey their fathers’ orders when they became daughters; when they got married, they should serve and obey all of their husbands needs; and, later, when they had sons, they had to obey their sons.
In relation between the couple, husbands and wives tend not to show overt sign of affection to each other in public. In 1920s, a wife was likely to follow deferentially a pace behind her husband on the street, encumbered with whatever babies or bundles needed to be carried, while the husband strode ahead in lordly grandeur (Reischauer, 1977: 208).
husbands to dinner, parties, or entertain outsiders in their homes. Instead, their lives were likely to be limited to their husbands, children, a few close relatives, and some old schooldays girl friends (1977: 207). Meanwhile, their husbands had the authority to develop a fuller social life with their work group, which may include a few young unmarried women.
D. Review on Women Movement in Japan
In the beginning, Japanese women’s movement appeared before the turn of the twentieth century. Liddle and Nakajima stated that women in this era were seeking for the suffrage, equality socialist feminist goal and reproductive freedom; the most importantly through the upper-class feminist Bluestocking and their journal Seito (Gelb, 2003:27-28). Japanese women are particularly active in the movement to end male sexual exploitation and also to restrain male’s role in family, social and politics. The way to deliver their aspiration was by writing and creating journals or newspapers, for example Matsui Yayori, the leading journalist for the newspaper Asahi Shinbun (2003: 30).
from China. Huge changes happened quickly and rapidly, Japan started their modernization, such as in science, technology, law, military, education, etc.
Fortunately, in 1871 Japan for the first time in history had marked their influence on the education for Japanese women. Then, in 1975 the first criticisms about women’s subordination became stronger and stronger. In addition, Christianity played a big role in involvement of women movement through the basic Christian ideas about the equality of the sexes, which were taught by the missionaries from the West. There were several women who gave more voice of protest, two of whom were sent into prison as political offenders, Toshiko Kishida and Hideko Kageyama who wrote in their biography:
Are not women also human beings? For it is as human beings that women have their divinely given rights and liberty. Is it not a grave insult to Nature’s gift to humanity to follow the superstitious teachings of the “Greater Learning for Women,” to be inured to the evil customs of ancient ties and to rest in a servile and aphatetic spirit as the toy and servant of man? (Straelen, 1940: 85)
education for women was destroyed; directly it also destroyed the beautiful ideas of Japanese womanhood.
Fortunately, in the twentieth of April, 1901, Professor Naruse opened the first institution university for women though it was still largely different from men’s universities. At that time, the movement of women’s suffrage first attracted attention. The basic movement was on women’s education. There were many new schools appearing. The problems on marriage were also becoming a serious issue. The effect of the popular culture influencing Japan in Meiji era resulted in the development of women education outside home. That resulted in the progress and recognition of feminine culture. Straelen stated that the connubial accord was an ornament being adored by the state because it was the basic principle of social morality and the establishment foundation of the nation at that time (1940: 92). What were called the good customs were the command of husbands and the obedience of wives. Those were the fundamental principles by which true Japanese homes were established. Here, women should be satisfied to continue wearing old-fashioned clothes or restricting themselves to the practice of ancient customs.
In 1911, the first feminist organization ‘Seito Sha’ was born. Here, the small gathering of women writers gave remarkable impetus to women rights. In the first issue of the society organ, ‘Seito’, Raicho Hiratsuka wrote:
E. Theoretical Framework
This part explains the contribution of the theories and review in solving the problems of the study. Theories are needed as the basic idea or concept to answer the problems formulated in previous chapter. Theories of character and characterization are used to analyze the characterization of the character. Those theories are suitable since the main character in the novel is the main focus of the discussion. Theories of character and characterization are needed to understand deeper about the character and to analyze what kind of traits the character has.
25
This chapter consists of three major points. The first point is ‘object of the study’ that will describe the work analyzed. The second point is the ‘approach of the study’. It explains of the approach used to analyze the works and the reason of using it. The last point is ‘method of the study’ that will describe the procedure of analyzing the work.
A. Object of the Study
The object of the study is a novel entitled Beauty in Disarray, written by a famous Japanese Female-writer Harumi Setouchi. Harumi Setouchi’s interest is on writing the biographical novels. Setouchi’s first biographical novel was a biography novel of a feminist Toshiko Tamura, which brought her fame by winning the First Toshiko Tamura Prize in 1960 (Setouchi, 1993: 13). Then, she continued to write a biographical novel about contemporary political and literary feminists. Beauty in Disarray was one of the examples. It can be said that Beauty in Disarray is the reflection of the experience which has happened in her life. The life of Harumi Setouchi who has had a dramatic complication in her life as much as her love, inspired and reflected on the characters in Beauty in Disarray.
Ito, a liberationist woman who lived in the Taiso era and were brutally killed by a military office after the disaster the Great Kanto earthquake in 1923. One of the selection committee was the famous influential writer, V.S Naipaul.
Beauty in Disarray is an autobiography novel, based on the real character that live in Taisho Era: Noe Ito. The novel is divided into six chapters, and an introduction conducted by Sanford Goldstein and Kazuji Ninomiya. Chapter one talks about the experience of ‘I’ character, as the interpretation of Harumi Setouchi, in acquainting interest with the figure of Noe Ito, hence gathering all information about her. The rest of the book is the story of Noe Ito.
B. Approach of the Study
The main focus of Harumi Setouchi’s Beauty in Disarray is the narration of the life of Noe Ito. Setouchi has created a work of literature regarding ‘unusual’ woman during Taisho Era. A brilliant woman who bravely declares herself as one of the members of ‘New Women’ and is courageously struggle her new ideas and creativities that are very contradictory to the idea of old-fashioned tradition in sexual, social, and politic. Noe delivers her ideas and way of thinking through her action, behavior and attitude in her everyday life. The writer sees that the life of Noe Ito contains the idea of feminism. This undergraduate thesis is an effort of proving it.
political issue which transcends the traditional study of literature (2000: 196). Talking about Japanese culture in which power imbalance was still very tight in the systems, it could not be separated from the history of Japanese society and the systems which had become their tradition. Therefore, in order to be able to see the injustice culture in Japanese society in the novel, feminism literary critics is closely related with this discussion since it studies the injustice system in sexual, social, and political which have done by the patriarchal system.
Based on the consideration above, finally the approach that the writer uses in this thesis is feminist approach. This feminist approach becomes the method used in analyzing the work supporting by the relevant theory(ies). Thence feminism approach is the most suitable one to apply in this study to reveal the idea of feminism of Setouchi’s character in Beauty in Disarray as the main ‘problem’ in this paper.
C. Method of the Study
The primary datum of the study was the novel Beauty in Disarray. The other data, called secondary data, which were also needed to support the research, were taken from various sources such as the theories, approach, and the history about women movement in Japan, or even the same criticism and comments from the experts in a form of papers or articles. The theories used in this study were theory of character and characterization, and theory of feminism. Those were taken and summed up from the books, and websites.
There were several steps done by the writer in doing her research. The first step was reading and understanding the novel, Beauty in Disarray. Later on, the writer tried to examine the details of the novel, by investigating the intrinsic elements through the characters.
The second step was deciding the topic of the study. It was continued by making the problems formulation followed by collecting the data and information such as the theories, views, comments, that were useful and needed in this research.
30
This chapter is to discuss the answers provided for the four problems formulated in this study. Regarding the fact that there are four problems formulated, therefore, this analysis is divided into four chapters. The first sub-chapter is the analysis about the description of the characters Noe Ito in Beauty in Disarray. The second sub-chapter reveals the background of Noe Ito’s feminist ideas. The third sub-chapter analyzes feminism ideas found in character’s minds and attitudes. The last sub-chapter analyzes the consequences that Noe Ito and her families had, as the result of her practicing those feminist ideas.
A. The Characterization of Noe Ito
1. Intelligent
…that she was poorest in English because she had until then been living in some out-of-the-way place in Kyushu, but that she was an extraordinary student with something of a natural gift for literature (Setouchi, 1993:69).
Since she was a child, Noe liked reading very much. Though her parents were not able to buy a single book or magazine for her because of the financial condition; she did not surrender with the situation. Instead, she had an initiative to search sources which could be used to exercise her learning. Little Noe liked to read anything; even she was willing to read the trace newspaper in the closet wall in the supper time by using a candle as the light.
Having brought in a candle, she’d be absorbed in reading every single line in the old newspapers pasted on the walls inside the closet and behind its sliding partition. You see, our family was already poor in those days, so there were no books or magazine in the house…At any rate, reading was what she liked to do more than anything else (Setouchi, 1993:47).
In addition, Noe also had a talent on writing besides being best at reading. Noe’s talent on writing was firstly known when she sent a very long letter to her uncle in Tokyo. Noe’s desire to study was very impassionate. In her letters, she persuaded her uncle to support her study in Senior High School. Her handwriting and the contents of the letters were so good and promising that made Mr. Namiroku Murakami, a novelist and her uncle’s neighbor, was so much impressed with Noe’s letters and even expected that the writer was a young man. Because of that, being recommended by Mr. Murakami, Noe continued her study in high school.
on reading those letters that the writer had to be a young man (Setouchi, 1993:37).
Amazingly, in her eighteenth, Noe could already create decent writings full of passion and the vigor of purity originally coming from her. It shows that Noe was definitely a really intelligent girl. Tsuji was really impressed by Noe’s talent on writing;
When Nakano showed him the school newspaper edited by her, Tsuji for the first time came to have a better opinion of the girl. That mimeographed newspaper which was brought out almost solely by Noe herself was, while immature, bolstered by a youthful single-minded passion overflowing with the vigor of purity. Already her essays and descriptive impressions, even while their touch was stiff and puerile, were products of an eye that could see with originally (Setouchi, 1993:70).
Noe’s talent on reading and writing was inherited from her grandmother Sato through her father (Setouchi, 1993: 36). In Ueno high school, Noe was active in writing and became the editor for her school’s newspaper. Noe developed her ideas and way of thinking through writing essays in that newspaper.
Jun Tsuji was Noe’s English teacher and a young literary enthusiast who devoted his reading on western thoughts. Being impressed by Noe’s talent and special gift, Tsuji wanted to develop Noe’s brain and cultivated her talent, especially on reading and writing.
….due to the fact that he was responding to the flame like desire yearning for expansion inside her, that he was merely trying to fully “educate” her and cultivate the talent she was endowed with, and that he was desiring somehow to touch the heated blood of the Kumaso clan running through her (Setouchi, 1993:90).
dormant within her. I’ll definitely make her into a wonderful woman by pouring into her all my knowledge, even my life. (Setouchi, 1993:110)
Noe was educated by the right person, who could read Noe’s special talent in literature, because Tsuji was a literary enthusiast and also a feminist. He had ever attended in Athenee francais and People’s English Academy, and furthermore, he became a lecturer at the Liberty English Academy at Hitotsubashi in Kanda. Tsuji also developed his reading on literature that made him acquainted with the names of Carlyle and Goethe. Moreover, his random reading was shifted from Japanese and Chinese to European works such as saiyuki was transformed into Baudelaire, extended to Hoffmann, and drawn to Poe. Next, Tsurezuregusa
became Lao-tze and Chuang-tsu, shifted to the Bible then turned into Stirner and Sterne (Setouchi, 1993: 67).
Seeing Tsuji’s academic background and the fact that Noe was endowed with a special gift on literature and strong ideas, later on, being nurtured by a man who knew well in that field, it is not surprising that Noe became intelligent and different from others.
“Miss Ito, have you read Hideko Kageyama’s Half of My Life?” “No, Not yet.”
“You’d better read it. Viewed from the history of the awakening of women, Hideko Kageyama is the heroic woman who lit the signal fires for the first time in our country. She’s from Okayama, and she was active in the moment for democratic rights.” (Setouchi, 1993: 88)
and about women liberation in order to open Noe’s understanding about women’s problems and women’s liberation. Here is the conversation between Tsuji and Noe about those books:
I want to read all those books. Would I be able to understand them?
For the most part yes. I’ll lend them to you since I have them. (Setouchi, 1993:89)
In the first time Noe lacked ability on English. After being cultivated by Tsuji in Ueno high school, her English progress was fantastic, as told in the following quotation: “Noe’s progress in English was extraordinary” (Setouchi, 1993: 70). Moreover, Noe was graduated from high school within two years only. It shows that Noe was really intelligent.
After graduated from Ueno high school, Noe, under Tsuji’s guidance, still continued to develop her reading, and immersed herself about women liberation. She exacerbated her ideology and learned about new ideas. She poured her ideas through writing on the magazines. Noe sent her hand writing to Haruko Hiratsuka, the chief editor of Seito. She was shaken up with Noe’s hand writing.
Even though she seems to be only seventeen or eighteen, it looks like she’s got a reasonable head.
Her sentenced are also fairly decent.
Somehow, I’d really like to cultivate the talent of a reliable girl with brain. (Setouchi, 1993: 124)
Noe’s intelligent contained in her writing which was published in May issue of Modern Thought, the journal of literature and ideas was impressed the founders of that magazine, Sakae Osugi and Kanson Arahata. In this magazine, Noe, under Tsuji’s help in translating the work of Emma Goldman, wrote about Emma Goldman’s emancipation of women. Sakae Osugi, the anarchist, was unnerved and deeply admired Noe’s article, which had attained such lucid writing and thought. Even more, he was really impressed after reading Noe’s books; this is the comment from Sakae on Noe’s decent writing,
Sakai had also read Noe’s book. “Yes, her writing is really quite forceful. I simply can’t believe she’s nineteen or twenty. Few men can write as powerfully as she can.” (Setouchi, 1993:252)
Noe’s talents after being nurtured by Tsuji result in the fact that she became intelligent. Noe’s strong ideas and her intelligent which is reflected through her writing made her became aware with the situation in her social life. Moreover, because she had gained her ideology, it made her to become intellectually critical with the social system, in this case patriarchal system that she found in her social life.
2 Critical
The first example shows that Noe is a critical person is the way Noe criticizes the arranged marriage. Since her first marriage was arranged by her parents, Noe felt that she became the victim because she had no voice to determine her choice. Being inspired by Henry Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, through the representation of Nora, Noe became aware with her own situation. She criticized her condition through the statement that “she was firmly bound hand and foot by her family and convention like a doll had been force to marry” (Setouchi, 1993: 92). As the result, she wanted to live freely by herself. Moreover, supported by Haruko Hiratsuka, Noe criticized that her problem was also the problem of all women in Japan who were still behind the times, the problem of errors of long-established conventions in social situation and feudalistic morality (Setouchi, 1993: 127). Therefore, Noe’s attitudes above in criticizing her condition and women condition regarding the tradition of arranged marriage show that Noe is a critical person.
The second example showing that Noe is a critical person is Noe’s speeches about the awakening of women held in Youth Hall at Mitoshirocho, Kanda. In her speeches, she criticized the patriarchal system existing in the feudal Japan which caused the women remain unawakened. Therefore, Noe’s speeches in criticizing the subordination of women in society show that Noe is an intellectually critical person.
her children. Therefore, Noe’s attitude criticizing the system which obligates women to focus only on domestic works shows that Noe is really a critical person.
The characteristic of Noe as a critical person is not only about women’s problem. Other examples which show that Noe is a critical person are Noe’s attitude in criticizing the banning of the sale of Heimin Shinbun, a socialist magazine,and criticizing Haruko Hiratsuka’s attitude.
Heimin Shinbun was a magazine founded by the socialist anarchist Sakae Osugi and Kanson Arahata. What they had written there had mainly to do with the awakening of the working men. Seeing the content of the magazine, it made the displeasure of the authorities because the magazine limited its remarks only to the workingman. Finally, the issue of Heimin Shinbun was immediately banned by the government. The banning Heimin Shinbun could not be separated from the influence of the socialist ideology brought by Osugi. Furthermore, the chaotic political situation happening since the greatest event of the trial of Shusui Kotoku, a socialist, for high treason by assassinating the emperor Meiji, had resulted in the condition where the movement space for the socialists became limited.
Noe’s attitude in criticizing the banning of Heimin Shinbun shows that she is a critical person. Considering that Heimin Shinbun had been banned by the government, Noe Ito, full of the spirit of resolution and power, was against it indignantly, assailing the banning of the sale of Heimin Shinbun through her essay published in Seito;
Noe declared that although she was neither a socialist nor an anarchist, she supported this socialist movement because their doctrines were truthful. Moreover, she gave comment to that the disaster of twice banning the sale of that magazine would expose the excessive timidity of the government (Setouchi, 1993:266). In conclusion, Noe’s essay in criticizing the banning of Heimin Shinbun shows that she is a really critical person.
The last example which shows Noe’s characteristic as a critical person is her attitude in criticizing Haruko Hiratsuka’s love relationship. Noe criticized the way Haruko starting and ending her lesbian relationships with Kokichi and made a new love relationship with Hiroshi Okumura and Yokichi Nishimura, whom Haruko knew herself that Yokichi was Katsu’s lover (Setouchi, 1993: 167). Therefore, putting aside the fact that Haruko was her chief editor in Seito, Noe criticized Haruko’s attitude: that she was very cruel to her friend and her lover and her attitude supposed not to be done.
Through several examples above, it is clear enough to justify that Noe Ito is a critical person. Noe’s attitude as a critical person would be closely related to the next discussions.
3. Courageous
or opposition, without showing fear” (Hornby, 2000: 302). The characterization of Noe Ito in her life, through her attitude and her way in making very important decisions, which seem to be very dangerous to do, shows that she is a courageous person. There are some examples showing that Noe is a courageous person.
Noe’s courage in refusing arranged marriage is one of the examples showing that Noe is a courageous person. Noe courageously refused her arranged marriage by leaving her husband after her marriage because she argued that her marriage was out of question: she was not included in the arrangement of her marriage; it was arranged by her parents (Setouchi, 1993: 37). Moreover, after having acquainted with new ideas about women’s liberation through reading a lot of books recommended by Tsuji, Noe Ito realized her situation. Since Noe was an active and critical woman, of course it was very hard for her to accept her situation: surrendering her life to become an ordinary housewife. As the result of her critique about the arranged marriage, and under Haruko’s suggestion, Noe courageously went back to her hometown, Imajuku, to settle the question of her marriage once and for all (Setouchi, 1993: 127).
The next courage owned by Noe was her attitude in involving herself to
Seito. The word Seito, meaning ‘blue-stocking’, which had its origin in the salon of Lady Montague in the fashionable world of eighteen-century London (Setouchi, 1993: 81). Seito was founded by the upper-class women and it became the first woman coterie in Japan. Before Seito had been established, the term
initially been disdained the writing of fiction in modern Japan by establishing the literary scene known as the ‘bundan’. They formed literary cliques and were published predominantly in their own journals, known as dojin zasshi (coterie journals), a publication which defined one as a serious writer (Coutts, 2006: 167). Therefore, by publishing Seito, these upper-class-intellectual-women had tried to reorganize the concept of ‘serious male writers’ by showing the female intellectual writers. Coutts added that the key role in creating a female literary coterie was to rival of the men (Coutts, 2006: 170).
In the novel, Seito was known as the radical magazine that bravely expose the life of women and all of her problems in family and society who most of them uneducated, marginalized, and bound with the old stabled custom. They were freely expressing their ideas, not only talking about household matters, like what had been done by the other women magazines, but it was more intellectual: about women liberation and emancipation. Unfortunately, the society addressed Seito
members as destitute female who were very dangerous.
…“New Women” of Seito, some people coming to view Seito members as “destitute females going to extremes,” their sex not submissive to men. In addition, various indecent conjectures formed by the curiosity of the vulgar were made of thee being only young women in the group, these irresponsible rumors circulating widely (Setouchi, 1993: 117).
Noe, without hesitation and full of courage, dived herself into the board of
Another example which shows Noe as a courageous person is her action in giving a lecture for a meeting in Kanda, in the middle of dangerous political situation. The liberal movement in Taisho era which was known as the ‘Taisho Democracy’ in Japan resulted the political crisis that made the crisis on the political power. It was marked by the trial of Shusui Kotoku for high treason, which became one of the greatest events in the beginning of Taisho era (Setouchi, 1993: 17). This event caused the situation become worse and chaotic. The government kept watching any kind of movements; it could be in the form of group gatherings or writings.
In the middle of the chaotic situation, Noe Ito courageously gave a lecture meeting for a group gathering which was called ‘Awakened Women’s Group’ and it was held on Saturday, February 15th, Youth Hall Mitoshirocho in Kanda (Setouchi, 1993: 165). Tsuji felt afraid of the situation; the police would dispatch an order to cancel the meeting remembering that the political situation in the country was unstable. Moreover, Tsuji asserted that this gathering would be more risky since the third Katsura cabinet had successfully overthrown of the Saionji cabinet. When Tsuji felt afraid with the situation, on the contrary, Noe, after knowing that real situation, did not feel even the slightest fear. Her courage was on fire and she stated bravely that she really wanted to give lecturer speeches on this gathering even though the situation was dangerous.
Based on Noe’s attitude above, it shows that she is a courageous person. She realized that what she was doing was something dangerous to do, but without showing fear, she courageously toke her responsibility to give speeches in that meeting.
Noe’s courage can also be seen through Noe’s decision in taking over
Seito from Haruko’s hand. Seito, in its journey as a tool to make a movement for liberating women did not always run smoothly. Many problems occurred both from the outside and the inside Seito members. Seito lost the affection it had had from the readers and lost its novelty due to sharp criticisms on it. Many criticisms came from the readers and the society, both criticizing the contents of the magazine, and the attitude of ‘New Women’ society. As the result, Seito was almost bankrupt.
Furthermore, that Seito was finally losing its novelty was reflected in the severity of the world’s criticism, the magazine’s sales gradually dwindling (Setouchi, 1993:258-259).
The dissention among Seito members also could be avoided. Triggered by the vacuum of the chief editor, Haruko Hiratsuka, because of having infatuated with Hiroshi, the dissention among the member occurred. The members such as Katsu Kobayashi, Kazue Otake or Kokichi, and Ichiko Kamichika joint other women magazine, Saffron, and were against Seito.
This let distrust of Raicho and a cooling in their affection and enthusiasm for Seito. In order to gain the love of this one person Hiroshi, Raicho had to sacrifice innumerable friendships. Bitter complaints were heard among the members even about Seito’s advertisements of Hiroshi’s drowning (Setouchi, 1993:259-260).
Even Katsu Kobayashi, to whom Raicho had been so attached, had now fled to the camp of Kokichi and Ichiko Kamichika and as if pitting herself against Seito had become a member of their women’s magazine Saffron
(Setouchi, 1993:273).
Noe’s indicated her courage, using Seito as the springboard to liberate women from the patriarchal society, by keeping on working on Seito even though the magazine came into degradation of its novelty. When the people tried and started to be against, to criticize, and to leave Seito, Noe courageously wanted to take her turn over Seito. She dived herself into the difficult circumstances even she knew exactly the risk she might get.
I want you to watch and see whether or not I am strong enough to continue this magazine. As long as I have breath, never will I release my grip on
Seito (Setouchi, 1993:280)
involved in the Tramcar Anti-Fare-Raising incident and was cast into prison for the first time (Setouchi, 1993: 248). In the forty-first year of Meiji, he was again imprisoned for the Red Flag Incident. This imprisonment apparently saved him from dangerous involvement in the Case of High Treason. After releasing from prison, Osugi became famous as socialist and anarchist. He was one of the men who were considered dangerous for the government.
Noe bravely married Osugi, consciously realizing that one day troubles would come to her because Osugi was the leading of the anarchists, and she was ready with all the consequences by regarding the fact. Since Noe lived with Osugi, her life had always been in turmoil. Many police officers always kept watching them. Here is Noe’s sister statement about that event;
After Noe lived with Osugi, our small quite village came to be thrown into turmoil. Up until then the police officials stationed in our village had nothing to do after they came to live here, and they were quite happy to come and just go fishing, but the moment my sister been living with Osugi, the officials were put too much trouble (Setouchi, 1993:53).
Moreover, Osugi and Noe bravely declared themselves as against the government and as the advocates of the anarchist and socialist movements in Japan. Noe was not afraid of the government, and even of death. It means that even though she was convinced that she was facing with the risk of death, it would never stop her and she was ready for it because she believed that what she was doing was right.
B. Noe Ito’s Backgrounds of Feminist Ideas
1. Patriarchal System
Patriarchal system became one of the main causes of Noe’s backgrounds of feminist ideas. Noe Ito, through her characteristics, she was an intelligent person supported by an intellectually critical thinking, was aware of the social condition around her. Through the feminist ideas, Noe could define the cradle of the custom that she had experienced in her life, which was, directly or indirectly, the patriarchal system existing in the society. It was believed that, in Japanese patriarchal society, women were inferior to men. This understanding had been precipitating in the women’s perception: that their life was likely to be limited to her husband, children and household. That was believed by the old-fashioned women and, as the obligation that must be done.
Noe Ito experienced that the old-fashioned women believed the custom existed in the society was worthwhile, such as taking care children, doing household, serving her husbands and his family. All of those duties should be done by all women. Noe had experienced those duties since she was a child. She saw her mother working hard in doing household, taking care her children, and working hard feeding her family.
The quotation above shows that Noe experienced that her mother and her sister were categorized as old-fashioned women since they were doing the duty obliged to them as the women. Noe’s mother had to work hard raising her children alone, and doing household, while her husband, Noe’s father, was going somewhere entertaining himself playing samisen for many years and did not back home. The understanding about ‘women’s duties’ was taught to their daughters since childhood. Noe’s sister was being taught to help her mother duties doing household, and she felt strange and uneasiness when seeing Noe doing none of the pieceworks like what she had done.
Noe got those understandings above when she became adult and after developing her idea. Since Noe was a critical person, her childhood experiences about the patriarchal system became one of the backgrounds of her spirit on learning new idea, Feminism, concerning with women’s problem.
being out of home working on Seito. This condition made Mitsu often complain about her. Mitsu even thought that Noe’s activity in Seito was a useless diversion (Setouchi, 1993: 282). For Mitsu, living inside home by taking care of her husband, her children, and doing household was the worthwhile job.
In the middle of taking care of a child, a woman has no time to read books. Jun is really to be pitied, isn’t he? If you were an ordinary wife, he’d be looked after in all ways. If I die, what would he do? (Setouchi, 1993:282)
In Confucian philosophy, women should obey their fathers when she became daughters; they should obey their husbands when they became wives; and they should obey their sons when they became mothers. Noe experienced those kinds of attitude clearly through Mitsu’s attitudes to Tsuji. Besides making truth about her attitude, that being an ordinary woman was worthwhile, Mitsu followed the norm in the society about the three obedience concepts. From the very beginning, Tsuji made agreement to her mother and sister about not to make Noe doing the work like the ordinary housewives (Setouchi, 1993: 285). Both Mitsu and Tsune, even in their heart complained and seemed to disagree with Tsuji’s will, finally followed and made an agreement to him by allowing Noe not to be as an ordinary housewife.
Both Mitsu and Tsune action in perceiving Tsuji’s will was not without any reason. Since the concept of patriarchy was strongly bound in the tradition through the obedience concepts enrooted to their idea, Mitsu and Tsune, the old-fashioned women, obeyed Tsuji’s will about treating Noe not as ‘an ordinary’ housewife, though Mitsu must restrain her discontent toward Noe.
Confucian philosophy, as the cradle of patriarchal idea in Japan, which emphasized on obedience, loyalty, and filial piety, could be found in another old fashioned woman: Chiyoko, Noe’s cousin. Chiyoko, who had been strictly brought up in the family’s discipline, when seeing Tsuji’s condition in which he was totally disregarded by his wife, thought that he was “the most ill-fated and miserable husband in the world” (Setouchi, 1993: 198). Chiyoko’s concept about the wife’s duty was still old-fashioned. She underlined that the main duty as a wife is taking care of her husband, no matter what her activity is.
No matter how important her work is, she has the duty of taking care of her husband, hasn’t she? It’s too much for her to be going out at night
She always does.
What! ‘Always’ you say (Setouchi, 1993:298)
Through Chiyoko’s point of view, one can see clearly that the patriarchal ideas existed not only in men’s opinion but also in the idea of old-fashioned women. Noe’s experiencing patriarchal system through her mother in law, sister in law, and her cousin became the background for her developing a new idea, Feminism.
had created such perception in the mind of the old-fashioned women: that their role was only of domestics. Her ability in perceiving the idea of patriarchal system surely could not be separated from her intellectual critical thinking and intelligence. Therefore, her experiences above become her background of developing feminist ideas.
2. The Education Development
Education development became one of the backgrounds of Noe’s developing feminist ideas. In Meiji period (1868-1912), Japan entered modernization era. The feudal system was abolished and some western institutions were adopted, like legal educational system. Moreover, undergoing westernization in Taisho period (1912-1926), Japanese intellectuals were influenced by the idea of egalitarianism and showed considerable concern toward women’s inequality. Yet, many men and women were sent to study abroad and many books from the west were translated into Japanese, both helped Japanese to capture the knowledge and technology from the western world.
