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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 5 [1997] 2 1 8 –2 2 1 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]
Organizational climate and teacher autonomy:
implications for educational reform
Grace M arie Dondero
Assistant Pro fe sso r, St Jo hn’ s Unive rsity, No tre Dame Co lle ge , Ne w Yo rk, USA
Shows how educational reform has been a persistent concern in the USA for decades. Recent reform initiatives have focused on teacher autonomy and teacher participation in school-based decision making. Private sector and school research identify the importance of worker/teacher autonomy. This autonomy leads to a sense of ownership and empowerment where workers aim to grow within their profession and seek increased responsibility. Believes real education reform must provide teachers with decision-making respon-sibility and autonomy in educational matters including choice with respect to profes-sional development. This can only be accomplished in a supportive and nurturing organization.
Con cer n a b ou t t h e USA’s a b ilit y t o com p et e in a glob a l m a r k et p la ce h a s in cr ea sed p u blic d em a n d for ed u ca t ion a l r efor m (N a t ion a l Com m ission on E xcellen ce in E d u ca t ion , 1983; N a t ion a l Gover n or s Associa t ion , 1990). Ma n y b elieve t h a t le ga l m a n d a t es wou ld r ever se d eclin in g en r olm en t s a n d t est scor es r a t h er t h a n sch oolb a sed lea d er sh ip. Le gisla -t ive r efor m er s focu sed on ed u ca -t ion a l im p r ovem en t s by in cr ea sin g t h e len gt h of t h e sch ool d ay, sch ool yea r, a n d t im e-on -t a sk w h ile st r essin g a ccou n t a b ilit y a n d b a sic sk ills (F r y m ier, 1987). P la cin g good in t en t ion s a sid e, r efor m er s fa iled t o see t h e r ea l p r ob lem s a s st u d en t a n d t ea ch er cen t r ed . P r ob -lem s of illit er a cy, d eclin in g t est scor es, d r op ou t r a t es, a n d su b st a n ce a bu se con t in u e t o in cr ea se a n d b ecom e m or e in gr a in ed in sch ool com m u n it ies (H en ley, 1987).
T h e Ca r n e gie Ta sk For ce (1986) em p h a sized t h e im p or t a n ce of t ea ch er s b ein g cen t r a l t o ed u ca t ion a l r efor m . T h e p r em iss w a s t h a t if sch ools w er e t o im p r ove, cr ea t ive a n d in n ova -t ive -t ea ch er s m u s-t b e r ecr u i-t ed in -t o -t h e p r o-fession a n d m u st r em a in in t h e sch ools (F r y m ier, 1987; H en ley, 1987). How ever, m a n y p olicy m a k er s a n d a d m in ist r a t or s w a x p h ilo-sop h ica l a b ou t t h e im p or t a n ce of t ea ch er s a n d t ea ch in g, on ly t o u n d er cu t t ea ch er s by cr ea t in g wor k con d it ion s t h a t st ifl e en t h u si-a sm si-a n d cr esi-a t iv it y.
E d u ca t ion a l r efor m m ea su r es in t h e 1990s em p h a size t ea ch er em p ow er m en t . Wit h t ea ch er p r ofession a lism a n d p a r t icip a t ion in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess b ein g d escr ib ed a s goa ls, t h e en d r esu lt s oft en fi n d t ea ch er s a s p a ssive r ecip ien t s of r efor m in it ia t ives (Ma er off, 1988). N e ga t ively a ffect in g t h e or ga -n iza t io-n a l clim a t e is i-n cr ea sed ce-n t r a liza t io-n a n d bu r ea u cr a t iza t ion w h ich r ed u ces t h e em p ow er m en t cen t r a l t o ed u ca t ion a l r efor m (Cu b a n , 1990). Ma n d a t ed r efor m s t h a t d o n ot t a k e in t o a ccou n t in p u t of gr a ssr oot s ed u ca t or s d o n ot r efl ect t h e im p or t a n ce of ed u ca -t or s a s p r ofession a ls ca p a ble of m a k in g d eci-sion s b en efi cia l t o t h e st u d en t s t h ey ser ve. Cen t r a lized m a n d a t es r ed u ce t h e fr eed om of t ea ch er s t o d ea l w it h d iver se st u d en t a b ilit ies a n d t h e n eed s of t h e com m u n it y (Wise, 1988).
As fa r b a ck a s 1904, J oh n Dew ey a ffir m ed t h e im p or t a n t r ole of cla ssr oom t ea ch er s w it h r esp ect t o effect ive sch ool ch a n ge.
T h e t en d en cy of ed u ca t ion a l d evelop m en t t o p r oceed by r ea ct ion fr om on e t h in g t o a n ot h er, t o a d op t for on e yea r, or for t h e t er m of seven yea r s, t h is or t h a t n ew st u dy or m et h od t ea ch in g, a n d t h en a s a b r u p t ly t o sw in g over t o som e n ew ed u ca t ion a l gosp el, is a r esu lt w h ich wou ld b e im p ossible if t ea ch er s w er e a d eq u a t ely m oved by t h eir ow n in t elligen ce (Dew ey, 1904, p. 16).
A com m on t h r ea d t h a t a p p ea r s b ot h in p r i-va t e sect or r esea r ch (Dr u ck er, 1980; N a isb it t , 1984; P et er s a n d Wa t er m a n , 1982) a n d in sch ool r esea r ch (Boyer, 1983; Good la d , 1984; Tier n ey et a l., 1991) is t h e im p or t a n ce of a u t on om y t o t h e in d iv id u a l wor k er / t ea ch er. In d iv id u a ls n eed a sen se of ow n er sh ip w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion . Wor k er s n eed t o exp lor e a n d feel con fi d en t in t est in g a lt er n a t ives. T h is, in t u r n , lea d s in d iv id u a ls t o em p ow er -m en t a n d r esp on sib ilit y for t h eir effor t s. Wh en a n or ga n iza t ion em p loy s on ly h a r d -n osed a p p r oa ch es w h er e wor k er s a r e d e-n ied a u t on om y, t h ey b ecom e fr u st r a t ed a n d p r ofes-sion a l gr ow t h is lim it ed (Wild m a n a n d N iles, 1987). In d iv id u a l a u t on om y is t h er efor e cr u -cia l t o t h e su ccess of t h e ed u ca t ion a l r efor m m ovem en t .
Organizational climate
T h e en v ir on m en t in w h ich a t ea ch er wor k s is closely lin k ed t o t h e or ga n iza t ion a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool. Or ga n iza t ion a l clim a t e is st r on gly r ela t ed t o t h e a m ou n t of con t r ol over in d iv id -u a l wor k er s a n d t h e m a n n er in w h ich t h is con t r ol is exer cised is d ir ect ly a ffect ed by m a n a gem en t st y le. Tea ch er s see sch ools a s effect ively fu n ct ion in g or ga n iza t ion s w h en t h er e is m or e p r ofession a lism a n d w h en d eci-sion m a k in g is m or e p a r t icip a t ive a n d less cen t r a lized .
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T h e effect of t h e en v ir on m en t on in d iv id u -a ls is d e p en d en t on t h e p r esen t p sych ologic-a l st a t e of t h e in d iv id u a ls. E a ch in d iv id u a l is u n iq u e a n d h ow t h e en v ir on m en t w ill a ct u -a lly -a ffect t h e in d iv id u -a l is d e p en d en t on t h e fi r m n ess of t h e b ou n d a r y b et w een t h e en v i-r on m en t a n d t h e in d iv id u a l.
Meyer s (1986) su ggest s t h a t a u t on om ou s b eh av iou r occu r s in d e gr ees (i.e. given cer -t a in si-t u a -t ion s, p eop le w ill a c-t m or e or less a u t on om ou sly ). To h ave t h e a b ilit y t o a ct a u t on om ou sly d oes n ot gu a r a n t ee t h a t t h e b eh av iou r w ill occu r ; in d iv id u a ls w ill on ly a ct a u t on om ou sly if t h e sit u a t ion is a p p r op r i-a t e t o t h em .
F r eed om t o wor k w it h in on e’s a r ea of exp er t ise is cr it ica l t o t h e su ccess of t h e or ga n iza -t ion . Over a ll effec-t iven ess of -t h e or ga n iza -t ion is b a sed on t h e a u t on om y of t h e in d iv id u a l wor k er a n d t h a t wor k er ’s effect iven ess is lin k ed t o t h e fr eed om p r ov id ed w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion a l clim a t e of t h e sy st em (Dr u ck er, 1980). Cr ea t iv it y, in n ova t ion , a n d good wor k er m or a le a r e t h e k ey s t o or ga n iza -t ion a l effec-t iven ess (Dr u ck er, 1985):
Au t on om y in sch ools is cr u cia l t o ed u ca -t ion a l effec-t iven ess. Au -t on om y em p ow er s in d iv id u a ls w it h in t h e sy st em t o t ea ch t o t h e ch a n gin g n eed s of t h e st u d en t s a n d t h e com -m u n it y (Ser giova n n i a n d Moor e, 1985):
T h e m or a le of p u blic sch ool t ea ch er s is on ly p a r t ia lly r ela t ed t o sa la r y a n d w elfa r e b en e-fi t s. T h r ee fa ct or s h ave gr ea t er effect on t ea ch er m or a le: w h et h er t ea ch er s a r e given a r ole in m a n a gin g t h eir p r ofession a l fu n c-t ion s; c-t h e exc-t en c-t c-t o w h ich c-t h ey a r e h elp ed c-t o p er for m b et t er ; a n d t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h ey a r e p r ov id ed w it h in for m a t ion a b ou t w h a t is exp ect ed of t h em a n d w h et h er t h ey m eet t h ese exp ect a t ion s (p. 5)
P a r t icip a t or y m a n a gem en t is on e m ea su r e on w h ich t ea ch er s a n d a d m in ist r a t or s a gr ee in la r ge p a r t . Ta k in g p a r t in ed u ca t ion a l m a n -a gem en t h -a s b een em b od ied in t o p r -a ct ice in scor es of sch ool d ist r ict s. Sh a r ed gover n a n ce h a s h elp ed t o r e p la ce com m u n ica t ion b a r r i-er s w it h op en n ess, h on est y a n d t r u st .
In -ser v ice ed u ca t ion is a cr it ica l fa ct or in sch ool en v ir on m en t a l r efor m . In -ser v ice ed u ca t ion r eq u ir es a d ee p com m it m en t fr om sch ool b oa r d s a n d su p er in t en d en t s. Wh en t ea ch er s a t t en d wor k sh op s, con fer en ces, et c., t h ey n eed t im e t o d igest t h e m a t er ia l a n d h ave t h e op p or t u n it y t o sh a r e w h a t in n ova -t ive m e-t h od s or d a -t a h ave b een lea r n ed . Tea ch in g for t h e m ost p a r t is d on e in isola -t ion fr om on e’s p eer s a n d -t h e p r eciou s m om en t s t ea ch er s a r e t oget h er in t h e lou n ge a r e u sed for ven t in g fr u st r a t ion s or
d iscu ssin g t h e la t est ed ict fr om a b oa r d of ed u ca t ion . Wh en a sch ool d oes n ot k n ow w h er e it is or w h er e it sh ou ld b e goin g,
t ea ch er s h ave lit t le b a sis for p r ofession a l con ver sa t ion . T h is con d it ion m a k es t h e n eed for com m u n ica t ion a m on g t ea ch er s even m or e im p or t a n t .
A look at schools
E d u ca t ion a l sy st em s a r e loosely cou p led (Weick , 1976) a n d , a s a r esu lt , in d iv id u a ls op er a t e in d e p en d en t ly m or e t h a n in gr ou p s (E n glish , 1986). T h e fr eed om t o a ct in d e p en -d en t ly is lin k e-d t o t h e level of com m it m en t of t h e t ea ch er t o t ea ch in g (Rosen h olt z a n d Sim p son , 1990).
P r ofession a lism in t ea ch in g is ch a r a ct er -ized by a con t r ol of on e’s d est in y (a u t on om y ) a n d a p p r op r ia t e p r a ct ice r a t h er t h a n t h e con for m it y a n d st a n d a r d ized p r a ct ice t h a t bu r ea u cr a t ic or ga n iza t ion a l a p p r oa ch es d em a n d (Da r lin gH a m m on d , 1985). T h e p r ob -lem of p r ov id in g a u t on om y t o t h e
p r ofession a l ed u ca t or is b a sed on t h e in h er -en t con fl ict b et w e-en p r ofession a liza t ion a n d bu r ea u cr a t iza t ion . Bla u et a l.(1966) fou n d t h a t p r ofession a ls fu n ct ion m or e effect ively in or ga n iza t ion a l set t in gs t h a t a r e less cen -t r a lized in r e ga r d -t o d ecision m a k in g, p r o-v id e m or e a u t on om y, p r oo-v id e a p a r t icip a t io-ve en v ir on m en t , h ave less for m a liza t ion of r u les a n d r e gu la t ion s in cr it ica lly p er ceived a r ea s, a n d h ave a h igh d e gr ee of t ech n ica l com p e-t en ce a n d com p lexie-t y.
If t h e p r ofession a l sees t h e en v ir on m en t a s con d u cive t o p r od u ct ive wor k , t h e p r ofes-sion a l w ill fu n ct ion effect ively in t h e or ga n i-za t ion . How ever, if t h e p r ofession a l p er ceives t h e en v ir on m en t a s n on con d u cive t o wor k , t h e p r ofession a l m ay n ot fu n ct ion effect ively (Rosen h olt z a n d Sim p son , 1990).
Areas for improvement
Som e sch ool d ist r ict s h ave w ell-d efi n ed , ca r e-fu lly p r e p a r ed in -ser v ice t r a in in g
p r ogr a m m es in effect . T h ey ser ve a s a p ow er -fu l sou r ce of con t in u ed r en ew a l for exp er i-en ced p er son n el a n d a n a n ch or for t h e n ov ice. H ow ever, t ea ch er s in som e sch ool d ist r ict s fi n d t h eir p r ofession a l d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m es a s n eit h er p r ofession a l n or a sou r ce of p osit ive d evelop m en t . T h is sa d com m en t a r y ca n b e illu st r a t ed by t h e follow -in g scen a r io a s t old by Ca r ol, a t ea ch er for 19 yea r s in t h e N ew Yor k Cit y p u blic sch ool sy st em :
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n eigh b or h ood , la t est eq u ip m en t ) a n d w er e u n cer em on iou sly h a n d ed a slip of p a p er w it h r oom a ssign m en t s for t wo m or n in g session s a n d on e a ft er n oon session . Tea ch -er s w it h m or e t h a n 20 yea r s of s-er v ice w -er e r eceiv in g t r a in in g a lon g w it h n ew ly a ssign ed p er son n el on r ecor d -k ee p in g r esp on sib ilit ies. On e of m y collea gu es, t h e r ecip ien t of t h r ee Ou t st a n d in g Scien ce Tea ch er Aw a r d s, w a s a ssign ed t o a Scien ce Sa fet y for N ew Tea ch er s wor k sh op !
N eed less t o say t h a t by 3 o’clock w e w er e a n gr y a n d d em or a lized ! Wh oever a ssign ed u s t o t h ese t r a in in g session s n ever con d u ct ed a n eed s a ssessm en t su r vey or, h eaven for b id , a sk ed w h a t w e wou ld h ave lik ed t o h ave lea r n ed m or e a b ou t ! We wou ld h ave b een b et t er off r e p or t in g t o ou r ow n sch ools t h a t d ay a n d wor k in g w it h ea ch ot h er on d evelop in g n ew p r ogr a m s a n d eva lu a t in g exist in g on es. N ew t ea ch er s wou ld h ave wor k ed w it h u s a n d lea r n ed a b ou t t h e p r ocess of d esign in g a n d eva lu a t -in g p r ogr a m s t h a t t h ey w er e a ct u a lly d ea l-in g w it h on a d a ily b a sis. T h ose few h ou r s wou ld h ave a ffor d ed u s a won d er fu l op p or t u -n it y t o wor k t oget h er for a com m o-n goa l. Su ch is t h e st u ff t h a t m a k es for good fa cu lt y m or a le.
Wh y a r en ’t t ea ch er s ever a sk ed a b ou t w h a t t h ey n eed or wou ld lik e in t er m s of p r ofession a l d evelop m en t ? You m ay t h in k m y r esp on se t o t h a t is sa r ca st ic bu t I r ea lly d on ’t t h in k m a n y st a ff d evelop er s ca r e a b ou t ou r op in ion s a n d / or cou ld n ’t d eliver t h e good s if t h ey t r ied !
Ot h er a r ea s n eed in g im p r ovem en t con cer n bu d get m a t t er s, sch ed u lin g, a n d cu r r icu lu m . T h ese d ecision s sh ou ld b e m a d e by st a ff m em -b er s a n d p a r en t s a t t h e in d iv id u a l sch ools. Sin ce t h ey a r e closest t o t h e im p lem en t a t ion of su ch d ecision s, st a ff m em b er s ca n im m ed i-a t ely p r ov id e feed b i-a ck i-a s t o d ecision i-a l effec-t iven ess.
Accor d in g t o J ea n n e, a 15-yea r vet er a n of a n u r b a n sch ool d ist r ict :
Ou r sch ool r ecen t ly a d op t ed sit e-b a sed m a n a gem en t on a lim it ed b a sis. Aft er sev -er a l m eet in gs a n d m u ch d iscu ssion , w e a gr eed t h a t w e w a n t ed m or e con t r ol over bu d get m a t t er s. P la n s w er e m a d e t o in vest iga t e t h e cost a n d m a in t en a n ce of n ew eq u ip -m en t a n d wor k b ook s. Aft er ou r co-m -m it t ee m a d e r ecom m en d a t ion s, w e p u r ch a sed n ew over h ea d a n d slid e p r oject or s a lon g w it h m a t h a n d socia l st u d ies wor k b ook s t h a t t h e ch ild r en cou ld w r it e in ! For yea r s t ea ch er s w er e t old t o h ave t h e ch ild r en copy a ll cla ss n ot es a n d n ot w r it e in t h e wor k b ook s. We fr eely a d m it t h a t copy in g cor r ect ly is a u sefu l sk ill. Bu t r eq u ir in g ch ild r en t o sp en d a good p a r t of t h eir sch ool d ay en ga ged in t h is a ct iv it y is a w a st e of t im e.
Wh ile t h e ch ild r en en t r u st ed t o u s com e fi r st in a ll ou r d ecision s, a won d er fu l a sp ect of
sit e-b a sed m a n a gem en t is t h e colle gia l a t m os-p h er e a n d su os-p os-p or t sy st em t h a t h a s em er ged . Tea ch er s, a d m in ist r a t or s, a n d p a r en t s cer -t a in ly b en efi -t bu -t ou r s-t u d en -t s w ill u l-t im a -t ely r ea p t h e gr ea t er r ew a r d s.
Conclusion
A clim a t e t h a t a ffect s t h e or ga n iza t ion in a p osit ive m a n n er p r ov id es a n en v ir on m en t in w h ich m em b er s en joy ext r em ely h igh esp r it. T h e t ea ch er s wor k w ell t oget h er a n d a r e n ot p r eoccu p ied by bu sy wor k or r ou t in e r e p or t s. T h e p r in cip a l fa cilit a t es t h e a ccom p lish m en t s of t ea ch er t a sk s w h ile a t t h e sa m e t im e p r o-v id es a n en o-v ir on m en t t h a t p er m it s fr ien d ly r ela t ion sh ip s. In t h e en v ir on m en t , t ea ch er s ob t a in job sa t isfa ct ion a n d a r e su fficien t ly m ot iva t ed t o over com e d ifficu lt ies a n d fr u s-t r a s-t ion , wor k in g s-t h in gs ou s-t , a n d s-t o k ee p s-t h e or ga n iza t ion m ov in g for w a r d . T h e t ea ch er s a r e p r ou d t o b e a ssocia t ed w it h t h is
or ga n iza t ion .
T h e r esea r ch of Misk el et a l.(1979) in d ica t es t h a t a n or ga n iza t ion w it h a p a r t icip a t ive en v ir on m en t a n d less cen t r a lized con t r ol is v iew ed a s a m or e effect ive or ga n iza t ion by t ea ch er s. T h is is su p p or t ed by t h e wor k of Ba n d u r a (1969) a n d An d er son (1982). H er sey a n d Bla n ch a r d (1982) em p h a size t h e im p or -t a n ce of m a n a gem en -t s-t y le -t o or ga n iza -t ion a l clim a t e. T h eir wor k is su p p or t ed by Dr u ck er (1985), Ou ch i (1981), a n d Ser giova n n i a n d St a r r a t t (1988). Ba sed on t h is r ev iew, or ga n i-za t ion a l clim a t e a p p ea r s t o b e a cr it ica l fa ct or in t h e st u dy of t ea ch er a u t on om y.
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Boyer, E .L. (1983), H igh S ch ool: A R ep or t on S ec-on d a r y E d u ca tiec-on in A m er ica, H a r p er & Row, N ew Yor k , N Y.
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Cu b a n , L. (1990), “Fou r st or ies a b ou t n a t ion a l goa ls for Am er ica n ed u ca t ion ”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 71 N o. 4, p p. 265-71.
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Organizatio nal c limate and te ac he r auto no my: implic atio ns fo r e duc atio nal re fo rm
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 5 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 1 8 –2 2 1
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