Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue5.1997:

(1)

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 5 [1997] 1 9 4 –2 0 2 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

Restructuring schools in Malta: the road to

improvement

Christopher Bezzina

He admaste r, St Martin’ s Co lle ge , Malta, and Le c ture r in Educ atio nal Manage me nt and Planning, Unive rsity o f Malta

Examines a process of how schools and their members can develop the capacity to refl ect on the nature and purpose of their work together. The focus is on school-site management practices as the way forward to improve the quality of education being provided. Argues that for schools to function better, a professional culture which offers choice, authority and responsibility through more decision-mak-ing powers and a participative structure at school level needs to be nurtured. Pro-poses that a combination of top-down and bottom-up strategies to improvement needs to be encouraged as against purely a top-down or bottom-up approach. Also proposes a framework for professional development at school-site level.

Introduction

Geor ge Ma r sh a ll, a 42-yea r -old secon d a r y sch ool t ea ch er r eca lls t h e d ay t h a t h is h ea d -t ea ch er, w h om h e h a d a lw ay s a d d r essed a s Mr s Ben n et t , in v it ed h im t o ca ll h er by h er fi r st n a m e. T h a t even t ca m e a ft er Geor ge, w h o h a d a lr ea dy b een t ea ch in g a t t h e sch ool for a r ou n d six yea r s, h a d ga in ed con fi d en ce t h r ou gh p a r t icip a t ion in a n IN SE T

p r ogr a m m e a n d h a d fi n a lly st a r t ed a sser t in g h im self p r ofession a lly. “I t h in k sh e saw m e in a n ew w ay ”, Geor ge sa id of h is h ea d t ea ch er.

Tea ch er s, w h et h er in Ma lt a , or a n y ot h er cou n t r y n eed t o b e seen in a n ew w ay. T h a t ch a n ge in p er ce p t ion ca n b e t h e b e gin n in g of em p ow er m en t , a n d t h e em p ow er m en t of t ea ch er s is essen t ia l if t h e sch ools a r e t o im p r ove (Be zzin a , 1996; Con st a ble, 1995). As lon g a s t ea ch er s a r e n ot a d eq u a t ely va lu ed by t h em selves a n d by ot h er s t h ey a r e n ot a p t t o p er for m w it h t h e n ecessa r y a ssu r a n ce a n d a u t h or it y t o d o t h e job a s w ell a s t h ey ca n (Ad elm a n a n d Wa lk in g-E a gle, 1997; Good la d , 1994; Rey n old s a n d Cu t t a n ce, 1992).

If t ea ch er s ca n b e lift ed in t h r ee k ey a r ea s – ea ch com p lem en t in g t h e ot h er – t h ey w ill b e a ble t o fl ex m u scles t h a t h ave b een a llow ed t o a t r op h y. T h ese t h r ee a r ea s in volve st a t u s, t h eir k n ow led ge, a n d t h eir a ccess t o d ecision m a k in g.

T h is p a p er a t t em p t s t o p r esen t som e id ea s for d iscu ssion a n d p r op oses p a r t icu la r r ou t es w h ich ca n h elp em p ow er t ea ch er s a n d sch ools in p a r t icu la r a s t h ey st r ive t ow a r d s q u a lit y im p r ovem en t .

T h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld , ed u ca t ion a l sy st em s h ave b een a ccu sed of b ein g ext r em ely con ser -va t ive socia l in st it u t ion s t h a t r esp on d ver y slow ly, if a t a ll, t o ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s, socia l ch a n ges a n d a dva n ces in t ech n ology. T h e r ea son s for t h is a r e a m u lt it u d e of com p lex in t er r ela t ed fa ct or s. P olit ica l, r eligiou s, socia l, cu lt u r a l, a n d ot h er in d e p en d en t for ces a ffect t h e econ om ic gr ow t h a n d socia l d evel-op m en t of a ll n a t ion s a n d h en ce t h e q u a lit y of ed u ca t ion p r ov id ed (Kin g, 1983; Ra ssek h a n d Va id ea n u , 1987).

Du e t o t h e in a b ilit y t o r esp on d d ir ect ly t o ch a n ge, t h e in fl u en ce of sch ools is b ein g a t t a ck ed fr om va r iou s q u a r t er s. In t h e h ea r t of t h is d eb a t e st a n d s t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession .

Tea ch er s a r e p oin t ed t o a s b ot h t h e p r im a r y ca u se of t h e cu r r en t cr isis a n d a t t h e sa m e t im e t h e b est h op e for it s even t u a l r esolu t ion (e.g. Ca r n e gie Ta sk For ce, 1986; Good la d , 1984). As ed u ca t or s w e b elieve t h a t w e ca n p lay a n im p or t a n t , m ay b e even d et er m in in g r ole in societ y. We t r u ly b elieve t h a t sch ools ca n m a k e a d iffer en ce. Yet , ou r p er son a l exp e-r ien ce w it h in sch ools a n d sch oolin g sy st em s sh ow s t h a t w e a r e m ost of t h e t im e ch a sin g w h a t ca n ea sily b e t er m ed a n elu sive a im , t h a t of p r om ot in g t h e fu ll d evelop m en t of t h e in d iv id u a l a n d est a blish in g a n ed u ca t ive societ y. On e won d er s h ow fa r sch ools ca n t r u ly a ct a s ch a n ge a gen t s, w h er e t h ey ch a n ge a n d in n ova t e in or d er t o m eet t h e d em a n d s of socia l ch a n ge. On e m a in r ea son w h y sch ools a r e p ow er less in t h is r esp ect is b eca u se, m or e oft en t h a n n ot , t h ey h ave t o r efl ect t h e w h im s of p olit ica l id eologies. In fa ct , in or d er t o u n d er st a n d w h y sch ools a n d t ea ch in g p r a c-t ices a r e con sc-t ic-t u c-t ed a s c-t h ey a r e, a n d h ow a lt er n a t ives m ay b e im p lem en t ed , w e n eed t o b e aw a r e of t h e oft en con t r a d ict or y socia l a n d p olit ica l for ces w it h in w h ich sch ools a n d t h eir t ea ch er s a r e ca u gh t (Br a d ley et a l., 1994; La m b er t , 1988).

T h is p a p er is b a sed on t h e p r em iss t h a t sch ools, u n d er cer t a in con d it ion s, ca n b ecom e m u ch m or e v it a l t h a n t h ey cu r r en t ly a r e. For sch ools t o r esp on d m or e effect ively t o a n ever -ch a n gin g socia l r ea lit y, it is cr u cia l t h a t t h eir p r esen t or ien t a t ion a n d focu s a r e r et h ou gh t a n d even t u a lly r est r u ct u r ed .

(2)

Christo phe r Be zzina Re struc turing sc ho o ls in Malta: the ro ad to impro ve me nt

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 5 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 9 4 –2 0 2

t ea ch er s h ave n ot b een given t h e op p or t u n it y t o d evelop in t o lea r n in g or ga n iza t ion s.

In r ecen t d eca d es t h er e h a s b een a gr ow in g t r en d t ow a r d s d ecen t r a liza t ion a n d h en ce sch ool-sit e m a n a gem en t (Dav id , 1995-1996; H er m a n a n d H er m a n , 1993; Moh r m a n et a l., 1994). On e of t h e m a jor im p lica t ion s b eh in d d ecen t r a liza t ion a n d d evolu t ion of a u t h or it y t o sch ools is t ea ch er em p ow er m en t (St ey n a n d Sq u elch , 1996; Weiss, 1993). As Ga b or a n d Meu n ier (1993) a n d Sch m ok er (1997) a m on g ot h er s h ave p oin t ed ou t , t ea ch er em p ow er -m en t is t h e w ay for w a r d a n d t h e on ly w ay t h e or ga n iza t ion ca n t r u ly lea r n a n d im p r ove.

T h e m ost im p or t a n t p oin t t h is p a p er w ill t r y t o m a k e is t h a t d evelop m en t p la n s for t h e im p r ovem en t of ed u ca t ion ca n a r ise w it h in ea ch in d iv id u a l sch ool – by t h ose w h o wor k a n d live in t h em ea ch d ay. Su ch sch ool r est r u ct u r in g w ill a lso n eed t h e su p p or t of effect ive a n d efficien t su p p or t ser v ices. T h er efor e, a p r od u ct ive t en sion b et w een in n er -d ir ect ed a n d ou t er -d ir ect ed effor t s t o im p r ove is n eed ed .

T h e p a p er w ill b e d ir ect ed a t p r esen t in g a p r ocess of h ow sch ools, a n d h en ce t h e m em -b er s of t h e in st it u t ion s, ca n d evelop t h e ca p a cit y t o r efl ect on t h e n a t u r e a n d p u r p ose of t h eir wor k t oget h er. Sch ools, w h ich a r e a p er son ifi ca t ion of t h e p eop le w h o com p r ise t h em , m u st b ecom e m or e r esp on sive t o t h eir ow n p a r t icu la r p r oblem s a n d n eed s.

Resea r ch ev id en ce (H a r gr eaves a n d H op k in s, 1991; H op k in s a n d Sebb a , 1995) h a s sh ow n t h a t t h e q u a lit y of ed u ca t ion in sch ools is h igh ly d e p en d en t on :

• t h e p r ofession a l com p et en ce of t h e ed u ca -t or s w i-t h in -t h e sch ool;

• a n efficien t su p p or t ive in fr a st r u ct u r e; a n d • a m or e d ecen t r a lized gover n a n ce st r u ct u r e. If w e b elieve t h a t ed u ca t or s a r e t o h ave a n y effect on ch a n ge, a n d t h a t ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ge d e p en d s la r gely on t h e q u a lit y of t h e t ea ch in g for ce, t h en w e n eed t o a n a ly se cr it ica lly p r e-sen t ed u ca t ion sy st em s, t h e goa ls t h ey a r e t r y in g t o a ch ieve a n d h ow t h ey a r e goin g a b ou t t h em (Ch a p m a n , 1993; F u lla n , 1995; H a r gr eaves et a l., 1996).

It is r ecogn ized t h a t t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion of ed u ca t ion r eq u ir es a t r a n sfor m a t ion of ed u -ca t ion st a ff of a ll k in d s a n d a t a ll levels. T h e q u a lit y of su ch st a ff d e p en d s n ot m er ely on t h eir k n ow led ge a n d sk ill, bu t a lso on t h e d e gr ee of t h eir m ot iva t ion t o u t ilize t h is k n ow led ge a n d sk ill a n d on t h e ext en t of t h e op p or t u n it y ava ila ble t o t h em t o d o so. Con se-q u en t ly, se-q u a lit a t ive im p r ovem en t d em a n d s con sid er a t ion of a w id e r a n ge of ed u ca t ion st a ff, t h e p r ov ision of a d eq u a t e in cen t ives, a n d t h e cr ea t ion of gen u in e op p or t u n it y t h r ou gh t h e p r ov ision of su p p or t ser v ices,

a d eq u a t e r esou r ces a n d op p or t u n it ies t o p a r t icip a t e in t h e d ecision m a k in g a ffect in g t h eir wor k (e.g. F a r r u gia , 1985, 1986, 1994).

T h e m a in t h r u st b ein g m a d e h er e is t h a t im p lem en t a t ion st r a t e gies ou gh t , a s m u ch a s p ossible, t o con sid er t h e m a in im p lem en t or s, t h a t is, t h ose wor k in g in sch ools a n d in cla ss-r oom s, w h en con sid ess-r in g ss-r efoss-r m s. N a t u ss-r a lly, n o on e st r a t e gy for im p r ovem en t is d efi n it e. Su ccess a n d / or fa ilu r e d e p en d on a va r iet y of fa ct or s. T h e ch a r a ct er ist ics w h ich n eed t o b e h igh ligh t ed a r e, fi r st , t h e a p p r oa ch a d op t ed – w h et h er t op -d ow n or b ot t om -u p – d e p en d s a lot on t h e p r eva ilin g a t t it u d es of t h e a u t h or it ies con cer n ed (b e it h ey, for exa m p le, d e p a r it -m en t a l officia ls or a sch ool h ea d ), a n d secon d , t h a t m ixes of t op -d ow n a n d b ot t om -u p st r a t e-gies, w h ich a r e n ot n ecessa r ily t ied eit h er t o cen t r a l or sch ool-b a sed a p p lica t ion , ca n a lso occu r (see F igu r e 1).

T h e t op -d ow n st r a t e gy of im p lem en t a t ion m ea n s t h a t d ir ect ion s d r a ft ed a t cen t r a l level w ill b e execu t ed in ea ch sch ool a cr oss t h e d ist r ict . (N ot e: t h e wor d d ist r ict is h er e u sed t h r ou gh ou t t o r e p r esen t t h e “sm a llest u n it ” in t o w h ich a cou n t r y is d iv id ed . Cou n t r ies m igh t u se d iffer en t t er m s su ch a s r e gion s or w a r d s t o m ea n t h e sa m e t h in g). Sim ila r ly, a b ot t om u p a p p r oa ch m ea n s t h a t sch oolgen er -a t ed d ecision s, u n iq u e t o e-a ch set t in g, w ill va r y fr om sch ool t o sch ool in t h e d ist r ict . Mixes of b ot h st r a t e gies a r e, h ow ever, a lso p ossible. For exa m p le, a d ir ect or a t n a t ion a l level ca n d ir ect h ea d t ea ch er s in ea ch sch ool t o set goa ls, p la n a n d est a blish p r ogr a m m es, a n d t o a ssess ou t com es. By d ir ect in g fr om t h e t op a p r ocess t o occu r a t ea ch sch ool w it h ou t p r escr ib in g t h e con t en t of t h e d ecision s, a va r ia t ion on t h e b ot t om -u p a p p r oa ch em er ges.

T h e focu s of t h is p a p er w ill b e d ir ect ed t ow a r d s sch ool-sit e m a n a gem en t (SSM). T h e p u r p ose of r efor m p olicies n eed t o b e d ir ect ed t ow a r d s cr ea t in g t h e k in d s of in st it u t ion a l a r r a n gem en t s a n d or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r es t h a t p r om ot e ed u ca t ion a l excellen ce. E ven -t u a l su ccess or fa ilu r e of sch ool r efor m d e p en d on t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h a t p u r p ose ca n b e a ccom p lish ed . T h e p a p er su ggest s t h e

Figure 1

Imple me ntatio n strate gie s to sc ho o l ac tio n (adapte d fro m Cuban, 1 9 8 4 , p. 1 3 9 )

Ce ntral autho ritie s To p-do wn

Sc ho o l-base d

Distric t wide

(3)

n eed t o r efr a m e t h e fu n d a m en t a l q u est ion s a b ou t sch ool r efor m . Ma n y r efor m s in t en d ed t o a lt er t h e fu n d a m en t a l st r u ct u r es of sch ools h ave m et w it h lit t le su ccess b eca u se t h ey fa il t o a sk t h e r igh t q u est ion s (F u lla n a n d H a r gr eaves, 1996; Ru d d ock , 1991; Sa r a son , 1990). Most st a t e r efor m s oft en a im for q u a lit y con t r ol, seek in g t o m a k e exist in g sy st em s m or e p r od u ct ive bu t a t t h e sa m e t im e n ot d ist u r b in g cla ssr oom r oles or t h e gover n a n ce st r u ct u r es of sch ools. T h e p a p er look s in t o w ay s a n d m ea n s of st r en gt h en in g sch ools a s or ga n iza t ion s – by ch a n gin g t h eir in st it u -t ion a l n a -t u r e (e.g. Bim b er, 1994; Br en n a n , 1989) m a in ly t h r ou gh sch ool-sit e m a n a ge-m en t p r a ct ices (e.g. Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s, 1989; Da r lin g-H a m m on d a n d McLa u gh lin , 1995; Dav id , 1994; Du iga n , 1988; H er m a n a n d H er m a n , 1993).

The essence of educational reform

Con cer n for t h e im p r ovem en t of ed u ca t ion is w id ely ev id en t t od ay in p r a ct ica lly a ll cou n -t r ies. On e m a jor d evelop m en -t -t h a -t ca n b e ob ser ved w it h in t h e p r esen t t r en d is t h a t m or e em p h a sis is b ein g d ir ect ed a t sch ool level, a t t h e w ay t h e sch ool fu n ct ion s. N a t ion s h ave w a st ed b illion s of p ou n d s on m a n y p oor ly con ceived bu t m ay b e p olit ica lly p op u -la r r efor m s w h ich in t h e en d fa iled t o p r od u ce a n im p a ct a t t h e m ost cr it ica l level, t h e sch ool, a n d m or e so, t h e cla ssr oom . Too fr e-q u en t ly, r efor m s h ave b een con t r a d ict or y in n a t u r e, p oor ly im p lem en t ed a n d h a d t o b e even t u a lly a b a n d on ed or else left t o d ie a n a t u r a l d ea t h (e.g. H op k in s, 1987). An y effor t t o im p r ove t h e effect iven ess of sch ools ca n n ot b e in t elligen t ly d ir ect ed w it h ou t u n d er st a n d -in g t h e dy n a m ics of sch ools. In fa ct J a m es Con a n t ’s a dv ice over 30 yea r s a go t h a t sch ools sh ou ld b e im p r oved “sch ool by sch ool” (Con a n t , 1989, p. 96) is b ein g r e-ech oed n ow by m a n y ed u ca t ion a list s (e.g. Fer gu son , 1984; Good la d , 1983; Miles et a l., 1987). Un d er st a n d -in g t h e dy n a m ics of sch ool en t a ils lea r n -in g a b ou t t h e a ct ion s a n d in fl u en ces of t ea ch er s, p u p ils, p a r en t s, com m u n it y m em b er s a n d com m u n it y or ga n iza t ion s, a n d t h e w ay s in w h ich t h ese in fl u en ces op er a t e (Lin d le, 1995/ 1996; Glick m a n , 1993).

Su ch a p er sp ect ive st r esses t h e v iew t h a t sch ools n eed t o occu py a cen t r a l p osit ion in ed u ca t ion a l d iscou r se d ir ect ed t ow a r d s sch ool im p r ovem en t , a n d , t ea ch er em p ow er m en t is seen a s a p ow er fu l m ea n s a n d a cr u -cia l in gr ed ien t if sch ools a r e t o im p r ove (F ield in g, 1995; Sick ler, 1988; West et a l., 1995). Let u s exp lor e t h e t er m s “sch ool im p r ove-m en t ” a n d “t ea ch er eove-m p ow er ove-m en t ” in soove-m e m or e d et a il.

School improvement: what does it

entail?

T h e wor k in g d efi n it ion p r op osed h er e is t h a t d evelop ed by t h e In t er n a t ion a l Sch ool Im p r ovem en t P r oject (ISIP ) (H op k in s, 1990). ISIP d efi n es sch ool im p r ovem en t a s:

… a sy st em a t ic, su st a in ed effor t a im ed a t ch a n ge in lea r n in g con d it ion s a n d ot h er r ela t ed in t er n a l con d it ion s in on e or m or e sch ools, w it h t h e u lt im a t e a im of a ccom -p lish in g ed u ca t ion a l goa ls m or e effect ively (Va n Velzen et a l., 1985, p. 48).

P r a ct ica l a n d r esea r ch exp er ien ce over t h e p a st d eca d e h a s su p p or t ed t h r ee m a in con clu -sion s. F ir st , a ch iev in g ch a n ge is m u ch m or e a m a t t er of im p lem en t a t ion of n ew p r a ct ices a t sch ool level t h a n it is of sim p ly d ecid in g t o a d op t t h em . Secon d , sch ool im p r ovem en t is a ca r efu lly p la n n ed a n d m a n a ged p r ocess t h a t t a k es p la ce over a p er iod of yea r s. It is n ot som et h in g h a p h a za r d , or t h a t ca n t a k e p la ce over n igh t . On t h e con t r a r y it r eq u ir es a sy s-t em a s-t ic a n d su ss-t a in ed effor s-t over s-t im e. Ch a n ge is a p r ocess n ot a n even t . T h ir d , sch ool im p r ovem en t is a m u lt ilevel p r ocess. T h a t is, it goes b eyon d cla ssr oom ch a n ge, a d op t in g a “cla ssr oom exceed in g” p er sp ec-t ive. Ch a n ge p r esu p p oses a ec-t ec-t en ec-t ion ec-t o oec-t h er r ela t ed con d it ion s b ot h w it h in a n d ou t sid e t h e sch ool, su ch a s t h e sch ool or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r e, com m u n ica t ion b et w een t ea ch er s, t h e sch ool et h os a n d clim a t e, a n d t h e t y p e of su p p or t ser v ices t h e sch ool r eceives fr om ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies (H op k in s, 1990; Va n Velzen et a l., 1985).

Su ch a d efi n it ion ch a llen ges t h e exist in g m od el w h ich sees sch ools (a n d t ea ch er s) a s p a ssive r ecip ien t s t o t h e ch a n ge p r ocess. T h e p r op osa l h er e is on e w h ich sees sch ools a s b ot h t h e ob ject s of a n d t h e a r en a s for ed u ca -t ion a l im p r ovem en -t a n d ch a n ge. Sch ools a n d t h eir st a ff n eed t o b ecom e a ct ive p a r t icip a n t s in t h e p r ocess of sch ool im p r ovem en t . T h is im p lies t h a t ed u ca t or s a t sch ool level n eed t o b e w illin g t o t a k e ch a r ge. T h is lea d s u s t o exp lor e t h e a r ea of t ea ch er em p ow er m en t .

What is empowerment?

(4)

Accor d in g t o a n u m b er of a u t h or s, em p ow -er m en t cov-er s t h r ee m a in a r ea s: st a t u s, k n ow led ge a n d a ccess t o d ecision m a k in g. Ma er off b elieves t h a t “b oost in g t h e st a t u s of t ea ch er s is fu n d a m en t a l” (Ma er off, 1988, p. 474) a s t h is w ill h elp t h em t o look on t h em -selves a n d t h eir collea gu es w it h t h e a p p r op r i-a t e d ign it y i-a n d r esp ect . Tei-a ch er s ci-a n on ly ga in t h is t h r ou gh t h eir ow n in d iv id u a l a n d con cer t ed effor t t o r ea lly t a k e ow n ersh ipof t h eir p r ofession w h ich for so lon g h a s b een in t h e h a n d s of ot h er s. To a ch ieve su ch st a t u s, t ea ch er s n eed t o feel t h a t t h ey a r e im p or t a n t , a n d t h a t t h eir exp er ien ces a n d exp er t ise a r e va lu ed a n d t r u st ed . On t h e ot h er h a n d , k n ow led ge is in it self p ow er a n d a n in cr ea se in on e’s k n ow led ge b a se is a n obv iou s st e p t o em p ow er m en t . Tea ch er s ca n m a k e gr ea t er d em a n d s on sch ool-sit e m a n a gem en t p r a c-t ices if c-t h ey sh ow c-t h e a u c-t h or ic-t ies a n d c-t h e com m u n it y a t la r ge t h a t t h ey (i.e. t ea ch er s) k n ow w h a t t h ey a r e t a lk in g a b ou t . Access t o d ecision m a k in g im p lies t h a t t ea ch er s’ id ea s a n d con t r ibu t ion s a r e im p or t a n t a n d fu n d a -m en t a l if t h e sch ool is t o -m ove for w a r d . H en ce, h ea d t ea ch er s n eed t o cr ea t e op p or t u -n it ies for t ea ch er s t o exer cise d ecisio-n m a k in g w h ich goes b eyon d w h a t t a k es p la ce in t h e cla ssr oom .

Tea ch er s exp er ien ce em p ow er m en t w h en t h ey h ave op p or t u n it ies t o im p r ove t h eir in st r u ct ion a l t ech n iq u es; w h en t h ey d ee p en t h eir k n ow led ge a n d u n d er st a n d in g of t h e a r ea s t h ey t ea ch ; w h en t h ey a d op t a h olist ic p er sp ect ive t o sch ool life; w h en t ea ch er s st a r t in volv in g t h em selves in d iffer en t sch ool m a t -t er s b eyon d -t h eir su b jec-t m a -t -t er. Su ch in volvem en t m ea n s h av in g a gr ea t er say in d ecision s w h ich a ffect t h eir r oles a t sch ool b ot h d ir ect ly a n d in d ir ect ly.

Un for t u n a t ely t h is is n ot ver y m u ch ev i-d en cei-d in ou r sch ools. Tea ch in g is st ill ver y m u ch p r a ct ised in isola t ion , a n d colle gia lit y is n on -exist en t for m a n y t ea ch er s. As a r esu lt , t h e t ea ch er ’s ow n k n ow led ge a n d a t t it u d e t ow a r d s p r ofession a l d evelop m en t h a s b een a llow ed t o a t r op h y. Mor eover, som e r esea r ch on t ea ch er em p ow er m en t r evea l t h a t som e t ea ch er s d o n ot u n d er st a n d em p ow er m en t , ot h er s d o n ot w a n t t o a cce p t t h e r esp on sib il-it y t h a t a ccom p a n ies em p ow er m en t , a n d ot h er s w a n t t o avoid t h e lea d er sh ip a n d p ow er it offer s (H er m a n a n d H er m a n , 1993; Mid gley a n d Wood , 1993).

H ow ever, if w e a r e op t im ist ic t h a t t ea ch er s p ossess lea d er sh ip q u a lit ies, or a r e w illin g t o lea r n a n d com m it t h em selves t ow a r d s t h e im p r ovem en t of t h e sch ool, a n d , lik e Ma er off (1988, p. 476), feel con fi d en t t h a t “t ea ch er s a r e h u n gr y for st im u la t in g ed u ca t ion a l exp er i-en ces” t h i-en w e w ill d o ou r u t m ost t o cr ea t e op p or t u n it ies w h er e t ea ch er em p ow er m en t

ca n t a k e p la ce. If w e a cce p t t h e p r em iss t h a t t h e u lt im a t e p ow er t o ch a n ge is in t h e “h ea d s, h a n d s a n d h ea r t ” of t h e ed u ca t or s w h o wor k in sch ools (Sir ot n ik a n d Cla r k , 1988, p. 660), a n d t h a t t h e sch ool st a ff is t h e k ey t o im p r ove-m en t (Clift et a l., 1989; Good la d , 1984;

H a r gr eaves, 1997; H op k in s, 1987) t h en fu t u r e sch ool r efor m p olicies a n d p r a ct ices w ill r efl ect su ch a n or ien t a t ion .

T h is, in m y op in ion , is on e of t h e m a jor ch a llen ges fa cin g ed u ca t or s wor ldw id e: t h a t of sh ift in g fr om a bu r ea u cr a t ic, t op -d ow n m od el t o on e w h ich em p h a sizes sch ool-sit e m a n a gem en t , t h a t is, on e in w h ich ed u ca t or s a t sch ool level a r e en cou r a ged t o t a k e d eci-sion m a k in g m or e ser iou sly a n d en d or se t h e r esp on sib ilit ies t h a t su ch d evolu t ion en t a ils (H olly a n d Sou t h wor t h , 1989; West -Bu r n h a m , 1992; West , 1995). If t ea ch er em p ow er m en t is u t ilized p r op er ly, m em b er s of st a ff w ill slow ly b e gin t o feel t h a t t h ey a r e r esp ect ed a n d va l-u ed a s in d iv id l-u a ls w h o ca n con t r ibl-u t e in m ea n in gfu l w ay s t o sch ool im p r ovem en t . It is a slow p r ocess w h ich ca n b e gr u ellin g a t t im es, w it h it s u p s a n d d ow n s, h ow ever it is t h e r oa d wor t h t a k in g.

Improving schools from within

T h e con ce p t of sch ool-sit e m a n a gem en t (SSM) t h er efor e im p lies a n d in volves sign ifi -ca n t a n d con sist en t d ecen t r a liza t ion t o t h e sch ool level, of a u t h or it y t o m a k e d ecision s r ela t ed t o t h e a lloca t ion of r esou r ces. H en ce t h e self-m a n a gin g sch ool con ce p t u a lized by Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s a n d ot h er s is on e in w h ich t h e in d iv id u a l sch ool is given t h e p ow er, r esp on sib ilit y a n d r esou r ces t o set goa ls a n d d et er m in e n eed s a n d p r ior it ies; t o cr ea t e sch ool p olicies con sist en t w it h sy st em gu id elin es a n d p a r a m et er s; t o p la n a n d im p le-m en t p r ogr a le-m le-m es a n d t o a lloca t e r esou r ces a ccor d in gly ; a n d t o eva lu a t e t h e effect iven ess of r esou r ce a lloca t ion d ecision s (Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s, 1989; Wa lla ce et a l., 1996).

T h is sect ion p r esen t s t h e m a in p ot en t ia l ch a r a ct er ist ics of SSM, d evelop s a r a t ion a le b a sed on sch ool effect iven ess, p r esen t s a fr a m ewor k for p r ofession a l d evelop m en t a n d t h e m a in ch a r a ct er ist ics b eh in d a sch ool d evelop m en t p r ocess. For sever a l yea r s n ow I h ave b een r ev iew in g t h e lit er a t u r e on SSM, d iscu ssin g, a n a ly sin g, t r y in g ou t p ossib ilit ies w it h collea gu es in d iffer en t con t ext s a n d in d iffer en t cou n t r ies, a n d u n d er t a k in g m y ow n em p ir ica l r esea r ch . F r om t h is I h ave d r aw n a n u m b er of con clu sion s a s t o w h a t SSM en t a ils:

• SSM is a b ou t ow n er sh ip.

(5)

• SSM offer s p ot en t ia l for en h a n ced or ga n iza -t ion a l effec-t iven ess a n d im p r oved s-t u d en -t ou t com es.

• SSM is b a sed on on e m a jor b elief: t h e sch ool a s a cen t r e of cr it ica l in q u ir y n ot a s a t a r get of ch a n ge.

• SSM in volves st a ff d evelop m en t , n et wor k -in g a n d p r oblem -cen t r ed a ct iv it ies. • SSM en t a ils a colla b or a t ive a p p r oa ch t o

d evelop m en t .

• SSM is n ot a b ou t m on ey.

• SSM focu ses d ir ect ly on t h e lea r n er (i.e. p u p il or ed u ca t or ) a n d h is/ h er n eed s.

A framework for professional development

For SSM to su cceed a n d be effective, sch ools, a n d m or e so cen tr a l a u th or ities, n eed to develop a fr a m ewor k for su ch pr ofession a l developm en t to ta k e pla ce. Th e con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k illu str a ted in F igu r e 2 pr ovides a str u ctu r a l sta r tin g poin t for pla n n in g a n d or ga n izin g th e design of th e va r iou s a ctivities th a t con stitu te th e “self-in n ova tive” sch ool. Its pu r pose is to a ssist sch ool a dm in istr a tor s to r ecogn ize th e elem en ts con tr ibu tin g to a n in te gr a ted pr ogr a m m e th a t a ck n ow ledges th e im por ta n ce of a va r iety of con ce pts a n d fea tu r es wh ich , wh en br ou gh t togeth er, con -tr ibu te to a descr iption of sta ff developm en t

th a t is h olistic, ba la n ced a n d devised to ben efi t th e sch ool a n d in dividu a l pr a ctition er s in it.

Strategic planning and development

Wh et h er you a r e a h ea d or lea d er of a sm a ller sch ool t ea m , you h ave a p a r t t o p lay in t h e p la n n ed op er a t ion a n d a ch ievem en t s of t h e sch ool. H en ce t h is fr a m ewor k for

p r ofession a l d evelop m en t st a r t s w it h a focu s on st r a t e gic p la n n in g a n d d evelop m en t , issu es w h ich m a n a ger s a t a ll levels in a sch ool sh ou ld b e n ot on ly fa m ilia r w it h bu t a ct ively in volved in – in a colla b or a t ive sen se (Dav ies a n d E llison , 1996; Robb in s a n d Alv y, 1995; Ru ss, 1995; Wa lla ce et a l., 1996).

Instructional leadership

In st r u ct ion a l lea d er sh ip is a con ce p t t h a t goes by m a n y n a m es. In t h e lit er a t u r e on t h is t op ic it is va r iou sly r efer r ed t o a s cu r r icu lu m lea d er sh ip, ed u ca t ive, p r ofession a l or even a ca d em ic lea d er sh ip. It is lea d er sh ip t h a t or ien t s it self on in st r u ct ion fi r st a n d for e-m ost . It is lea d er sh ip t h a t con cer n s it self w it h w h a t goes on in cla ssr oom s a n d m a k es ed u ca -t ion a l m a -t -t er s -t h e p r ior i-t y. I-t s p osi-t ion in g in t h is fr a m ewor k is d elib er a t e a n d sign ifi es it s st a t u s a s t h e u n d er ly in g solid b a se su p p or t -in g t h e m ix of elem en t s t h a t con st it u t e a b a l-a n ced st l-a ff d evelop m en t p r ogr l-a m m e.

T h e cor e t a sk s of in st r u ct ion a l lea d er sh ip a r e r ela t ed t o p la n n in g for in st r u ct ion (p r o-gr a m m e d evelop m en t , st a ff d e p loy m en t a n d r esou r ce p r ov ision ); m a n a gin g t h e op er a t ion of in st r u ct ion (or ga n iza t ion , st a ff or ien t a -t ion , p r ogr a m m e su p er v ision , a ssessm en -t a n d t ea ch in g su p er v ision ); a n d d evelop m en t (a p p r a isin g st a ff, a r r a n gin g st a ff d evelop -m en t a n d eva lu a t in g p r ogr a -m -m es). In sp it e of com p et in g d em a n d s on t h e p r ior it ies of sch ool lea d er s t od ay, t h is r ole is a ck n ow l-ed gl-ed by m ost h ea d s a s cr u cia l t o su ccessfu l sch ool m a n a gem en t a n d , in r ea lit y, t h e su c-cess of in st r u ct ion a l lea d er sh ip en d eavou r s w ill d e p en d on t h e ext en t t o w h ich a d m in ist r a ist or s a n d ist ea ch er s a r e em p ow er ed ist o con -t r ibu -t e -t o -t h e -t a sk (Be zzin a , 1995; P op lin , 1992; West -Bu r n h a m , 1992).

Performance appraisal process

At t h e h ea r t of a n y sch ool d evelop m en t p r o-gr a m m e is t h e m ea n s by wh ich we get t o k n ow wh a t n eed s t o b e im p r oved a n d wh y, b efor e we set a b ou t t h e t a sk of d ecid in g h ow we w ill d o t h is. In sh or t , a p p r a isa l is a b ou t t wo t h in gs: a ccou n t a b ilit y a n d eva lu a t ion . I p a r t icu la r ly lik e t h e w ay Kelly st a t es t h e fa ct s:

Accou n t a b ilit y, a s w a s well a p p r ecia t ed by t h e a n cien t Gr eek s, is a n essen t ia l elem en t of d em ocr a cy – a n elem en t wh ich is t oo lit t le ev id en t in p r esen t -d ay ver sion s of d em oc-r a cy. An d som e fooc-r m of eva lu a t ion ooc-r Figure 2

A pro fe ssio nal de ve lo pme nt pro gramme frame wo rk

Performanc e appraisal

pro c e ss

Manage me nt de ve lo pme nt

Instruc tio nal le ade rship Strate gic planning and de ve lo pme nt

Pe rso nal de ve lo pme nt Sc ho o l

de ve lo pme nt

(6)

a p p r a isa l of p er for m a n ce is clea r ly it s b a se... Wit h ou t som e k in d of eva lu a t ion it is d iffi-cu lt t o see wh a t b a sis m igh t exist for a n y r ea l d evelop m en t eit h er of t h e cu r r icu lu m or of t h e t ea ch er s t h em selves. For a p r er eq u isit e of im p r ovem en t m u st b e som e eva lu a t ion of p r ev iou s p er for m a n ce. (Kelly, 1987, p. 215)

Wh ile w e ca n b e con fi d en t t h a t t ea ch er s h ave a lw ay s en ga ged in con st a n t , in for m a l a p p r a isa l of t h eir wor k , or in t h e p a st h ave h a d t h is fu n ct ion p er for m ed by a n ou t sid e a gen cy, w e m u st n ot b e com p la cen t a b ou t t h e n eed t o for m a lize a n d im p lem en t v isible a p p r a isa l p r ocesses w h ich a r e in t h e n a t u r e of p r ofession a l d evelop m en t r a t h er t h a n p er i-od ic d et en t ion ! An id ea l p r ocess wou ld b e effect ive in a ch iev in g fou r t h in gs: 1 id en t ify in g d evelop m en t n eed s;

2 p r ov id in g h on est a n d ob ject ive feed b a ck ; 3 m a k in g d ia logu e a b ou t im p r ovem en t p

os-sible; a n d

4 b r in gin g a b ou t a gr eed a n d d esir ed ch a n ge. At t h is p oin t I m u st st a t e m y p osit ion in t h e on goin g d eb a t e on t h e con t en t iou s t op ic of a p p r a isa l. I b elieve it is n ot on ly essen t ia l for p r ofession p eop le t o gr a sp t h e n et t le bu t a lso v it a l t h a t t h ey h a n d le it w ell. In or d er t o ju d ge t h e wor k of t h ose w e a r e r esp on sible for, w e m u st b e a ble t o ob t a in a n d give q u a lit y feed -b a ck a -b ou t p er for m a n ce. It is t h er efor e cr it ica l t h a t w e h ave m a n a gem en t a n d in t er p er -son a l sk ills t h a t m a k e t a lk in g a n d list en in g p ossible in t h is con t ext .

Elements of a staff development programme

A st a ff d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m e fou n d ed on a cor e elem en t of a p p r a isa l is su p p or t ed by sou n d gu id in g p r in cip les r ela t ed t o sch ool p la n s a n d q u a lit y in st r u ct ion a l lea d er sh ip. On ce a sch ool’s st r a t e gic p la n is est a blish ed a n d lea d er s a t a ll levels a gr ee t h a t in st r u ct ion is t h e p r ior it y t o focu s on , a n d t h e or ga n iza -t ion is a ble -t o id en -t ify a n d com m u n ica -t e st r en gt h s a n d w ea k n esses, t h en lea d er s a r e in a p osit ion t o p la n for st a ff d evelop m en t in a w ay t h a t a ck n ow led ges p er son a l t a r get s, t ea m t a r get s a n d w h ole-sch ool p la n s for in st i-t u i-t ion a l ch a n ge. A si-t a ff d evelop m en i-t p r o-gr a m m e ca lls for fou r gen er a l in o-gr ed ien t s t o ob t a in t h e r igh t m ix. T h ese a r e:

1 cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t ; 2 p er son a l d evelop m en t ; 3 m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t ; 4 sch ool d evelop m en t .

All of t h ese m u st b e p r esen t t o som e d e gr ee in or d er t o cr ea t e a sou n d p r ogr a m m e.

Curric ulum de ve lo pme nt

In t h e fi r st q u a d r a n t is cu r r icu lu m d evelop -m en t . T h is t er -m ca n a p p ly eit h er t o a set of

lesson s or t o a n a t ion a l cu r r icu lu m p r oject a n d ever y t h in g in b et w een ! Sever a l cla ssica l t h eor ist s in t h is fi eld h ave d ev ised p r ocesses for cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t w h ich , a lt h ou gh t h ey d a t e b a ck t o t h e m id d le of t h is cen t u r y, a r e st ill in u se t od ay. On e su ch m od el, w it h w h ich you a r e p r ob a b ly fa m ilia r, is Ty ler ’s m od el t h a t r eq u ir es con sid er a t ion of fou r a sp ect s of a cu r r icu lu m : ob ject ives, con t en t , or ga n iza t ion a n d eva lu a t ion . For a m or e com p lex m od el on e ca n t u r n t o t h e wor k of Reidet a l.(1987) w h o r ecom m en d ed a loop in g a p p r oa ch , on t h e a ssu m p t ion t h a t st e p s m ay b e r ev isit ed a lon g t h e w ay.

T h ey p r op ose a seven -st e p cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t m od el:

1 iden tifi ca tion of a pu r pose for developm en t; 2 for m u la t ion of t h e d esign a n d ob ject ives; 3 t ea ch in g st r a t e gy d ecision s a n d t r a in in g; 4 p r od u ct ion of m a t er ia ls a n d r esou r ces; 5 cla ssr oom r esea r ch a n d t r ia llin g; 6 im p lem en t in g t h e n ew cu r r icu lu m ; 7 eva lu a t in g t h e n ew cu r r icu lu m .

An y a t t em p t t o d evelop a cu r r icu lu m sh ou ld of cou r se en com p a ss a ll t h ese a ct iv it ies, w h et h er or ga n ized on a n a t ion a l, r e gion a l or loca l sca le. T h e t y p es of q u est ion s w e m u st a sk ou r selves a t sch ool level a r e:

• H ow m u ch d evelop m en t ca n a sch ool su st a in ?

• Wh a t w ill t h is m ea n for t h e t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t of t h ose w h o w ill b e in volved ? • H ow is t h e cu r r icu lu m p r ogr a m m e t o b e

m on it or ed a n d r ev iew ed ?

• H ow oft en ca n or sh ou ld w e ch a n ge t h e cu r r icu la ?

• Wh o is t o b e in volved in su ch wor k ? • H ow w ill t h is a ffect p r a ct ice?

I a m su r e t h a t t h e r ea d er ca n a d d h is/ h er ow n q u est ion s t o t h is list .

Pe rso nal de ve lo pme nt

(7)

sk ills t h a t en a ble t h em t o r ecogn ize t h e com -p lexit y of t h e t ea ch in g t a sk a n d d ea l w it h con t est a ble issu es, a n d d o t h is in a w ay t h a t r esp ect s t h e d ign it y a n d p r ofession a lism of collea gu es. T h er e is st ill a lot of lea r n in g t o b e d on e in t h is a r ea a n d w e n eed t o d evelop d ia g-n ost ic a g-n d r efl ect ive a p p r oa ch es w h ich a llow on e t o con fr on t p r ofession a l con cer n s op en ly a n d n e got ia t e p la n s for t r a in in g a n d d evelop -m en t a lon g t h e w ay.

Manage me nt de ve lo pme nt

In t h e t h ir d q u a d r a n t is m a n a gem en t d evelop -m en t . T h is r ela t es t o t h e b ody of in for -m a t ion , t h eor y a n d sk ills w h ich en a bles sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s t o wor k effect ively w it h a n d t h r ou gh ot h er s t o a ccom p lish or ga n iza t ion a l goa ls. A com p r eh en sive v iew of m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t is p r esen t ed by McMa h on a n d Bola m (1990) w h o ca t e gor ize m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t in t h r ee w ay s:

1 M a n a gem en t su p p or t: w h ich r efer s t o sch ool a r r a n gem en t s a n d p r oced u r es for p r ofession a l gr ow t h , su ch a s job r ot a t ion a n d en h a n cem en t , p r om ot ion , p er for -m a n ce a p p r a isa l, eq u a l e-m p loy -m en t op p or t u n it ies, ca r eer d evelop m en t , a n d t h e p r a ct ica l issu e of r esou r cin g st a ff en ga gem en t in in it ia t ives t h a t em p ow er t h em t o d evelop.

2 M a n a gem en t tra in in g: w h ich r efer s t o in -ser v ice cou r ses, wor k sh op s, con fer en ces a n d t r a in in g op p or t u n it ies w h ich t h e sch ool or ga n izes in t er n a lly, or sen d s p r a c-t ic-t ion er s c-t o, w ic-t h c-t h e in c-t en c-t ion of ga in in g p r a ct ica l in for m a t ion a n d lea r n in g sk ills t o sh a r e w it h collea gu es.

3 M a n a gem en t ed u ca tion: w h ich r efer s t o ext er n a l st u dy p r ogr a m m es t h a t em p h a -size t h eor y a n d r esea r ch b a sed k n ow led ge, lea d t o q u a lifi ca t ion s a n d in cr ea sin gly in cor p or a t e exp er ien t ia l lea r n in g m et h od s t h a t en cou r a ge p r a ct it ion er s t o a p p ly lea r n in g t o p r a ct ice.

Lea d er s a n d p ot en t ia l lea d er s w h o h ave r esp on sib ilit y for m a n a gin g sch ools or a r ea s

of cu r r icu lu m a n d ser v ices sh ou ld h ave a ccess t o d evelop m en t op p or t u n it ies in a ll t h r ee of t h ese m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t ca t e gor ies.

Sc ho o l de ve lo pme nt

In t h e fou r t h q u a d r a n t is sch ool d evelop m en t . T h is con ce p t h a s b een w ell d efi n ed by P r ebble a n d St ew a r t :

Sch ool d evelop m en t is a p la n n ed , con t in u in g effor t t o a d d r ess h ow t h e in st it u t ion d ia g-n oses a g-n d m a k es d ecisiog-n s w it h ig-n it s sp h er e of in fl u en ce. It r ela t es ch a n ge w it h p u r p ose, m a k es over t t h e p r eva ilin g b eliefs, va lu es, n or m s of it s p op u la t ion , a n d b e gin s w it h t h e a ssist a n ce of a con su lt a n t wh o h a s t h e con fi -d en ce of t h e en t ir e gr ou p. Im p licit w it h in t h is d efi n it ion is t h e n ot ion t h a t su ch a st r a t -e gy m u st b -e a colla b or a t iv-e r -ela t ion sh ip d ea lin g w it h b ot h r ea l a n d p er ceived p r ob -lem s (P r ebble a n d St ew a r t , 1984, p. 156).

T h is in volves t h e sy st em a t ic r ev iew of sch ool-w id e a ct iv it ies in a p r oblem -solv in g cycle of exp lor a t ion , feed b a ck , a n d t r ia llin g of in it ia -t ives lea d in g -t o con sid er ed a n d w ell-p la n n ed ch a n ge, w h ich is t h en eva lu a t ed . Sch ool d evelop m en t is b a sed on t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics sh ow n in F igu r e 3.

Concluding remarks

For sch ools w h ich w ish t o m a k e t h e b est u se of lim it ed r esou r ces, m eet obliga t ion s t o im p r ove t h e ca p a b ilit ies of st a ff (a n d t h u s im p r ove t h e ed u ca t ion a l exp er ien ces of st u -d en t s), a n -d -d ev ise st a ff -d evelop m en t

p r ogr a m m es w h ich a r e r eleva n t , m ea n in gfu l a n d effect ive, a com m it m en t t o p la n n in g a n d a for m of n eed s a n a ly sis is essen t ia l. Alt h ou gh few sch ools a gr ee t h a t t h ey d o t h is t a sk w ell, t h er e a r e sever a l exa m p les of sm a ll a n d good b e gin n in gs on w h ich t o bu ild .

T h e m essa ge b ein g p u t for w a r d is a sim p le on e. In or d er t o d esign a n d im p lem en t a SSM p r ogr a m m e w h ich cou ld im p a ct p osit ively on sch ool p r a ct ices, on e m u st st a r t by eva lu a t in g t h e ext en t t o w h ich in st r u ct ion a l lea d er sh ip a n d p la n n in g p r a ct ices a r e p r ov id in g a sou n d fou n d a t ion for p r ogr a m m e d evelop m en t . T h e Old Test a m en t t ells u s t h a t “p eop le w it h ou t a v ision sh a ll p er ish ”. Wit h ou t a v ision sch ool p eop le w ill con t in u e t o favou r w h a t ever a ct ion p r om ises t o ext in gu ish a fi r e m ost q u ick ly – so t h a t t h ey ca n m ove t o t h e n ext fi r e. A sch ool w it h ou t a v ision m ay n ot p er -ish , it m ay even b e fr ee of fi r es, b u t it w ill n ot d evelop ver y m u ch .

P a ssion a t e com m it m en t , su ch a s a n y SSM p r ogr a m m e n eed s t o b e b a sed on , com es w it h t h e em a n cip a t ion of ou r m in d s a n d ou r a t t a ch m en t , r ea t t a ch m en t for som e, t o p u r p oses wor t h wor k in g for. Rest r ict ive Figure 3

Sc ho o l de ve lo pme nt c yc le

Evaluatio n

Aims

Targe ts Audit

Imple me ntatio n pro c e ss

‘ Where do we want to go ? ’

‘ How do we get there? ’ ‘ Whe re are we no w? ’

(8)

en v ir on m en t s con fi n e a n d sm ot h er cr ea t iv it y a n d p u r p ose. A p r ofession a lly a d d r essed a n d r u n sch ool-sit e m a n a gem en t p r ogr a m m e ca n lib er a t e p r ofession a ls a n d en a ble t h em t o r ed esign sch oolin g. T h is is t h e ch a llen ge w h ich aw a it s Ma lt ese sch ools, on e w h ich is w it h in ou r gr a sp.

References

Ad elm a n , N.E . a n d Wa lk in g-E a gle, K.P. (1997), “Tea ch er s, t im e, a n d sch ool r efor m ”, in H a r gr eaves, A. (E d .), R eth in k in g E d u ca tion a l Ch a n ge w ith H ea r t a n d M in d, ASCD, Alexa n d r ia , VA, p p. 92-110.

Be zzin a , C. (1991), “Im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of sch oolin g in Ma lt a ”, T h e In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l M a n a gem en t, Vol. 5 N o. 4, p p. 14-18.

Be zzin a , C. (1995), “T h e Ma lt ese p r im a r y sch ool p r in cip a lsh ip : p er ce p t ion s, r oles a n d r esp on sib ilit ies”, u n p u blish ed P h D T h esis, Br u n el Un iver sit y.

Be zzin a , C. (1996), “Sch ool-b a sed d evelop m en t ”, in Ven t u r a , F. (E d .), S econ d a r y E d u ca tion in M a lta : Ch a llen ges a n d Op p or tu n ities, MUT P u blica t ion s Lt d , Ma lt a , p p. 28-46.

Be zzin a , C. a n d West , N. (1997), “Tea ch er em p ow er m en t : t h e w ay a h ea d for q u a lit y im p r ovem en t ”, M a n a gem en t in E d u ca tion, Vol. 11 N o. 2, p p. 31-2.

Bim ber, B. (1994), Decen tra liz a tion M ira ge: Com pa rin g Decision M a k in g A r ra n gem en ts in Fou r High S ch ools, In stitu te on E du ca tion a n d Tr a in in g, Ra n d Cor por a tion , Sa n ta Mon ica , CA.

Bor g, M.G. a n d F a lzon , J .Z. (1989), “St r ess a n d job sa t isfa ct ion a m on g p r im a r y sch ool t ea ch er s in Ma lt a ”, E d u ca tion a l R ev iew, Vol. 41 N o. 3, p p. 271-9.

Br a d ley, H ., Con n er, C. a n d Sou t h wor t h , G. (E d s) (1994), Dev elop in g T ea ch ers Dev elop in g S ch ools, Dav id F u lt on , Lon d on . Br en n a n , J . (1989), “A t im e t o ch a n ge?”, T h e

In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l M a n a gem en t, Vol. 3 N o. 3, p p. 7-9.

Ca ldw ell, B.J . a n d Sp in k s, J .M. (1989), T h e S elf-M a n a gin g S ch ool, T h e F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on . Ca r n e gie Ta sk For ce (1986), A N a tion Prep a red :

T ea ch ers for th e 21st Cen tu r y, Ca r n e gie For u m on E d u ca t ion a n d t h e E con om y, N ew Yor k , N Y. Ch a p m a n , J . (1993), “Lea d er sh ip, sch ool-b a sed

d ecision m a k in g a n d sch ool effect iven ess”, in Dim m ock , C. (E d .), S ch ool-B a sed M a n a ge-m en t a n d S ch ool E ffectiv en ess, Rou t led ge, Lon d on , p p. 201-18.

Clift , P.S., N u t t a ll, D.L. a n d McCor m ick , R. (E d s) (1989), S tu d ies in S ch ool S elf-E v a lu a tion, T h e F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on .

Con a n t , J .B. (1989), “T h e Am er ica n h igh sch ool t od ay : a fi r st r e p or t t o in t er est ed cit izen s”, in Or lich , “E d u ca t ion r efor m : m ist a k es, m iscon ce p t ion s, m isu ses”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 70 N o. 7, p. 513.

Con st a ble, H . (1995), “Develop in g t ea ch er s a s ext en d ed p r ofession a ls”, in Bu sh er, H . a n d

Sa r a n , R. (E d s), M a n a gin g T ea ch ers a s Pr ofession a ls in S ch ools, Koga n P a ge, Lon d on , p p. 151-66.

Cu b a n , L. (1984), “T r a n sfor m in g t h e fr og in t o a p r in ce: effect ive sch ools r esea r ch , p olicy a n d p r a ct ice a t t h e d ist r ict level”, H a r v a rd E d u ca tion a l R ev iew, Vol. 54 N o. 2, p p. 129-51. Da r lin g-H a m m on d , L. a n d McLa u gh lin , M.W.

(1995), “P olicies t h a t su p p or t p r ofession a l d evelop m en t in a n er a of r efor m ”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 76 N o. 8, p p. 597-604.

Dav id , J .L. (1994), “Sch ool-b a sed d ecision m a k in g: Ken t u ck y ’s t est of d ecen t r a liza t ion ”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 75 N o. 9, p p. 706-12.

Dav id , J .L. (1995/ 6), “T h e w h o, w h a t , a n d w h y of sit e-b a sed m a n a gem en t ”, E d u ca tion a l L ea d er -sh ip, Vol. 53 N o. 4, Decem b er -J a n u a r y, p p. 4-9. Dav ies, B. a n d E llison , L. (1996), “Bu ild in g a

fu t u r es a n d a st r a t e gic p er sp ect ive in sch ool d evelop m en t p la n n in g”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e BE MAS Resea r ch Con fer en ce: P a r t n er s in Ch a n ge: Sh a p in g t h e F u t u r e, 25-27 Ma r ch , Rob in son Colle ge, Ca m b r id ge.

Du ign a n , P.A. (1988), “Refl ect ive m a n a gem en t : t h e k ey t o q u a lit y lea d er sh ip ”, T h e In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l M a n a gem en t, Vol. 2 N o. 2, p p. 3-12.

F a r r u gia , C.J . (1985), “T h e st a t u s of sch ool t ea ch -er s in Ma lt a ”, u n p u blish ed P h D T h esis, Un iver sit y of Lon d on .

F a r r u gia , C.J . (1986), “Ca r eer ch oice a n d sou r ces of occu p a t ion a l sa t isfa ct ion a n d fr u st r a t ion a m on g t ea ch er s in Ma lt a ”, Com p a ra tiv e E d u ca tion, Vol. 22 N o. 3, p p. 221-31. F a r r u gia , C.J . (E d .) (1994), A N ew V ision For

Pr im a r y S ch ools, MUT P u blica t ion s, Ma lt a . Fen ech , J . (1992), “P r im a r y sch oolin g in Ma lt a :

a n h ist or ica l a n d et h n ogr a p h ic st u dy ”, u n p u blish ed P h D T h esis, Un iver sit y of Lon d on .

Fer gu son , M. (1984), T h e A qu a r ia n Con sp ira cy, P a la d in , Lon d on .

F ield in g, M. (1995), “Ma p p in g t h e p r ogr ess of ch a n ge”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e E u r op ea n Con fer en ce on E d u ca t ion a l Resea r ch , Un iver sit y of Ba t h , 14-17 Se p t em b er. F u lla n , M. (1995), Ch a n ge Forces: Pr ob in g th e

Dep th s of E d u ca tion a l R efor m, T h e F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on .

F u lla n , M. a n d H a r gr eaves, A. (1996), W h a t’s W or th Figh tin g for in You r S ch ool, 2n d ed ., Tea ch er s Colle ge P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y. Ga b or, C. a n d Meu n ier, G. (1993), “P u t t in g t h e

p ow er in t o em p ow er m en t ”, J ou r n a l for Qu a l-ity a n d Pa r ticip a tion, Vol. 16 N o. 1, p p. 98-101. Glick m a n , C.D. (1993), R en ew in g A m er ica ’s

S ch ools: A Gu id e for S ch ool-B a sed A ction, J ossey -Ba ss, Sa n F r a n cisco, CA.

Good la d , J .I. (1983), “A st u dy of sch oolin g: som e fi n d in gs a n d h y p ot h esis”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 64 N o. 7, p p. 465-70.

Good la d , J .I. (1984), A Pla ce ca lled S ch ool: Pr osp ects for th e Fu tu re, McGr aw -H ill, N ew Yor k , N Y.

(9)

H a lla ck , J . (1990), In v estin g in th e Fu tu re: S ettin g E d u ca tion a l Pr ior ities in th e Dev elop in g W orld, UN E SCO: IIE P, P a r is.

H a r gr eaves, A. (E d .) (1997), R eth in k in g E d u ca tion a l Ch a n ge w ith H ea r t a n d M in d, Associa t ion for Su p er v ision a n d Cu r r icu lu m Develop m en t , Alexa n d r ia , VA.

H a r gr eaves, A., E a r l, L. a n d Rya n , J . (1996), S ch oolin g for Ch a n ge, T h e F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on .

H a r gr eaves, D.H . a n d H op k in s, D. (1991), T h e E m p ow ered S ch ool, Ca ssell, Lon d on . H er m a n , J .J . a n d H er m a n , J .L. (1993), S ch

ool-b a sed M a n a gem en t: Cu r ren t T h in k in g a n d Pra ctice, T h om a s C P u blish er s, Illin ois. H olly, P. a n d Sou t h wor t h , G. (1989), T h e Dev elop

-in g S ch ool, F a lm er P r ess, Lon d on . H op k in s, D. (1987), Im p r ov in g th e Qu a lity of

S ch ools, Acco, Leu ven , Belgiu m .

H op k in s, D. (1990), “T h e In t er n a t ion a l Sch ool Im p r ovem en t P r oject (ISIP ) a n d effect ive sch oolin g: t ow a r d s a sy n t h esis”, S ch ool Orga n isa tion, Vol. 10 N os 2 a n d 3, p p. 179-94. H op k in s, D. a n d Sebb a , J . (1995), “Im p r ov in g

sch ools: a n over v iew of im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of ed u ca t ion for a ll p r oject s”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e E u r op ea n Con fer en ce on E d u ca t ion a l Resea r ch , Un iver sit y of Ba t h , 14-17 Se p t em b er. Kelly, A.V. (1987), K n ow led ge a n d Cu r r icu lu m

Pla n n in g, H a r p er & Row, Lon d on . Kin g, E .J . (1983), “Ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion for a

ch a n gin g societ y ”, E d u ca tion a n d S ociety, Vol. 1 N o. 1, p p. 5-12.

La m b er t , L. (1988), “St a ff d evelop m en t

r ed esign ed ”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 69 N o. 9, p p. 665-8.

Lin d le, J .C. (1995/ 6), “Lesson s fr om Ken t u ck y a b ou t sch ool-b a sed d ecision m a k in g”, E d u ca tion a l L ea d ersh ip, Vol. 53 N o. 4, Decem b er -J a n u a r y, p p. 20-3.

McMa h on , A. a n d Bola m , R.A. (1990), H a n d b ook for Secon d a r y Sch ools: Ma n a gem en t Develop m en t a n d E d u ca t ion a l Refor m , P a u l Ch a p m a n , Lon d on .

Ma er off, G.I. (1988), “A blu e p r in t for em p ow er in g t ea ch er s”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 69 N o. 7, p p. 473-7.

Mid gley, C. a n d Wood , S. (1993), “Beyon d sit e-b a sed m a n a gem en t : em p ow er in g t ea ch er s t o r efor m sch ools”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 75 N o. 3, p p. 245-51.

Miles, M.B., E k h olm , M. a n d Va n d er b er gh e, R. (E d s) (1987), L a stin g S ch ool Im p r ov em en t: E x p lor in g th e Pr ocess of In stitu tion a liz a tion s, Acco, Leu ven , Am er sfoor t .

Moh r m a n , S.A., Woh lst et t er, P. a n d Associa t es (E d s) (1994), S ch oolB a sed M a n a gem en t Orga -n iz i-n g for H igh Per for m a -n ce, J ossey -Ba ss, Sa n F r a n cisco, CA.

N ew m a n n , F. a n d Weh la ge, G. (1995), S u ccessfu l S ch ool R estru ctu r in g, ASCD, Alexa n d r ia , VA. P op lin , M. (1992), “T h e lea d er ’s n ew r ole: look in g

t o t h e gr ow t h of t ea ch er s”, E d u ca tion a l L ea d -ersh ip, Vol. 49 N o. 5, p p. 10-11.

P r ebble, T.K. a n d St ew a r t , D.J . (1984), S ch ool Dev elop m en t: S tra tegies for E ffectiv e

M a n a gem en t, 2n d ed ., Du n m or e P r ess, P a lm er st on N or t h .

Ra ssek h , S. a n d Va id ea n u , G. (1987), T h e Con ten ts of E d u ca tion, UN E SCO, P a r is.

Reid , K., H olly, D. a n d H op k in s, D. (1987), T ow a rd s th e E ffectiv e S ch ool, Bla ck w ell, Oxfor d . Rey n old s, D. a n d Cu t t a n ce, P. (E d s) (1992), S ch ool

E ffectiv en ess: R esea rch , Policy a n d Pra ctice, Ca ssell, Lon d on .

Robb in s, P. a n d Alv y, H .B. (1995), T h e Pr in cip a l’s Com p a n ion, Cor w in P r ess, CA.

Ru d d ock , J . (1991), In n ov a tion a n d Ch a n ge: Dev elop in g In v olv em en t a n d Un d ersta n d in g, Op en Un iver sit y P r ess, Bu ck in gh a m . Ru ss, J . (1995), “Colla b or a t ive m a n a gem en t

a n d sch ool im p r ovem en t : r esea r ch fi n d in gs fr om ‘im p r ov in g sch ools’ in E n gla n d ”, In ter n a tion a l S tu d ies in E d u ca tion a l A d m in istra tion, Vol. 23 N o. 2, p p. 3-9. Sa r a son , S. (1990), T h e Pred ictable Fa ilu re of

E d u ca tion a l R efor m, J ossey -Ba ss, Sa n F r a n cisco, CA.

Sch m ok er, M. (1997), “Set t in g goa ls in t u r bu len t t im es”, in H a r gr eaves, A. (E d .), R eth in k in g E d u ca tion a l Ch a n ge w ith H ea r t a n d M in d, ASCD, Alexa n d r ia , VA, p p. 128-48.

Sick ler, J .L. (1988), “Tea ch er s in ch a r ge: em p ow er -in g t h e p r ofession a ls”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 69 N o. 5, p p. 354-6, 375-6.

Sir ot n ik , K.A. a n d Cla r k , R.W. (1988), “Sch ool-cen t r ed d ecision m a k in g a n d r en ew a l”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol 69 N o. 9, p p. 660-4. St ey n , G.M. a n d Sq u elch , J . (1996), “E xp lor in g t h e

p er ce p t ion s of t ea ch er em p ow er m en t in Sou t h Afr ica : a sm a ll sca le st u dy ”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e BE MAS Resea r ch Con fer en ce: P a r t n er s in Ch a n ge: Sh a p in g t h e F u t u r e, 25-27 Ma r ch , Rob in son Colle ge, Ca m b r id ge.

Tim a r, T.B. (1989), “T h e p olit ics of sch ool r est r u c-t u r in g”, Ph i Delta Ka p p a n, Vol. 71 N o. 4, p p. 264-75.

Va n Velzen , W.G., Mile, M.B., E k h olm , M., H a m eyer, U. a n d Rob in , D. (1985), M a k in g S ch ool Im p r ov em en t W ork : A Con cep tu a l Gu id e to Pra ctice, Acco, Leu ven , Belgiu m . Wa lla ce, M., H a ll, V. a n d H u ck m a n , L. (1996),

“Sen ior m a n a gem en t t ea m s in p r im a r y a n d secon d a r y sch ools”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e BE MAS Resea r ch Con fer en ce: P a r t n er s in Ch a n ge: Sh a p in g t h e F u t u r e, 25-27 Ma r ch , Rob in son Colle ge, Ca m b r id ge.

Weiss, C.H . (1993), “Sh a r ed d ecision -m a k in g a b ou t w h a t ? A com p a r ison of sch ools w it h a n d w it h ou t t ea ch er p a r t icip a t ion ”, T ea ch ers College R ecord, Vol. 95 N o. 1, Au t u m n , p p. 69-92.

West , M., H op k in s, D. a n d Ber esfor d , J . (1995), “Con d it ion s for sch ool a n d cla ssr oom d evelop -m en t ”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e E u r op ea n Con fer en ce on E d u ca t ion a l Resea r ch , Un iver sit y of Ba t h , 14-17 Se p t em b er. West , N.F. (1995), M id d le M a n a gem en t in th e

Pr im a r y S ch ool, Dav id F u lt on , Lon d on . West -Bu r n h a m , J . (1992), M a n a gin g Qu a lity in